Limited Effects Theory of Mass Communication

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Limited Effects Theoryof Mass Communication

• Source
• Baran Davis (2003). Mass communication theory.
  Belmont CA Thomson. Chapter 6.
• Longman.
• Severin Tankard (1997) . Mass communication
  theories. Chapter 9. NY

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Preview of the lesson

• Introduction
• Paradigm shift
• Paradigm shift in mass communication Theory
• The two step flow of information influence
• Lazarsfeld Model
• Limited effects theory
• Attitude Change Theories
• Hovland Model
• Communication Research program
• Selective processes
• Hovland-Lazarsfeld Legacy

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Introduction

• Effects of World War II saw the rise of the other
  mass communication theories, in particular the
  effects on the mass communication.
• The outcome of the theories of propaganda gives
  rise to the other moderate view of the power of
  mass media.
• The media were no longer feared as instruments of
  political oppression and manipulation but instead
  view a force wich has potential social good.

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• The medias power over the public was seen
  limited (defying the Magic Bullet Theory). So
  limited that no government regulations were
  deemed necessary to prevent media manipulation.
• The public was viewed as independent and
  intelligent could resistant persuasion
  extremist manipulation.

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• There was a belief that most people were
  influenced by other factors rather than by the
  media and that the role of opinion leaders were
  responsible for guiding and stabilizing politics.
• It was also believe that a very small minority of
  people psychologically were vulnerable to direct
  manipulation be the media.

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• Media were conceptualized (viewed) as relatively
  powerless in shaping public opinion as compare to
  other influences like individuals or group
  memberships.
• How and why did such radical transformation of
  thinking in media theory takes place in a very
  short period of time?

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• This change of thinking apparently was the result
  of continuous research by Paul Lazarsfeld
  (Prinston University later moved to Colombia
  University) who developed the use of
  sophisticated surveys to measure media influence
  on how peoples thought and act.
• These surveys provided convincing evidence that
  media rarely are powerful and has direct
  influence on individuals.

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• The effects were limited in scope. Media can
  only influence few people in their thoughts and
  actions which was referred to as limited effects
  perspective.
• That is the idea that the media have limited
  effects on individuals

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• Only a small minority of the people had
  psychological traits that made them vulnerable
  to direct manipulation by media.
• In fact, media were thought relatively powerless
  in shaping public opinion.
• How is that, such radical transformation of media
  theory takes place in a short period of time?

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Paradigm Shift

• There is a shift in paradigm (believing,
  thinking) and this led by Paul Lazarsfeld,
  Hovland others, who did a lot of research on
  media influence how people thought and acted.
• The result shows that media rarely had any
  direct influence on individuals. The media lack
  the power to instantly convert an average people

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• The effect s were limited, effecting few people
  or on trivial (less important) influence.

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• These findings were was later referred to as the
  limited effects perspectives.
• In times of war national crisis we turn to
  media as a means of making sense of what is going
  on trying to anticipate what might happen in
  the future.

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• The more we depend on the media to do this, the
  more we effectively placed our faith in the
  media to guide us the more likely the media
  will influence our lives. For this the Lasswells
  propaganda theory works.
• In times the power lies in ourselves in the
  way we choose to allow media to effect our lives.
• This is the essence of the limited effect
  perspectives.

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Paradigm Shift

• There is a paradigm shift from war times to peace
  time. i.e. There is a transformation of thinking
  from one perspectives to the other.
• During the war years, Lazarsfeld (Colombia U.)
  Hovland (Yale U.) were drawn into media studies
  to understand the power of propaganda the
  threat it posed. They hope that if the media is
  so powerful it might be controlled use for the
  good.

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• But they found out that the media were not as
  powerful as what was initially thought to be.
  Media influence over public opinion were less
  important than other factors such as social
  status education.
• During the 1950s, new paradigm in communication
  began to take shape remain strong in 1960s
  1970s . New methods of research were employed
  namely survey interview (as part of the
  empirical evidence)

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The Two-Step Flow of Information Influence

• Lazarsfeld believed that theories must be
  supported by empirical data i.e. he used
  inductive approach to theory construction, that
  is research should began with empirical
  observations not based on speculations.
• He did two major studies on election campaigns
  (1940) Erie, Ohio (known as Ohio study) in
  (1943) in Decatur, Illinois.

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• The Ohio study he used 3000/43,000 residents
  with 600 follow up interviewed.
• In, Illinois he used 700 interviewed.
• Observations were done within 6 months period.
• His observations, that voters were divided into
  three categories as follows

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• Early deciders, Waverers, Converts
  Crystallizes.
• 1. Early Deciders i.e those who choose the
  candidate in May never change during the entire
  campaign.

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• 2. The Waverers i.e. choose one candidate
  later were undecided or switch to another.
• 3. The Converts i.e. choose one candidate but
  then voted the opponent.
• 4. The Crystallizes i.e. those who had not choose
  a candidate in May but made a choice in November.

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• He used a long detailed questionnaires on mass
  media content (candidate speeches)
• His argument is that if propaganda is so powerful
  as mass society theory predicted this research
  should allowed him to pinpoint media influence.
  If the mass society theory was valid, he should
  have found that most voters either Converts or
  Waverers.

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• The results
• What he found was that
• 55 Early deciders. Choose one candidate in May
  never change.
• 28 Crystallizes made a predictable choice
  stay with it.
• 15 Waverers choose one candidate later switch
• 8 Converts choose one but later vote the
  opponent.

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• He found little evidence that media played an
  important role in influencing the crystallizes
  the weavers or the converts.
• Instead the voters are more likely to say they
  are more likely influence from other people than
  media. Often the decision was that they decide to
  vote following the people closest to them. Not
  because of media contents.

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• The influence of mass media was only to reinforce
  a vote choice they had already made.
• Media gives people more reasons for choosing a
  candidate of their choice.
• For crystallizes media helped party loyalties.
• Very little evidence to suggest media convert
  voters. The converts were in fact those people
  with divided loyalties.

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• They had group ties that pulled them to the
  opposite direction.
• Lazarsfeld found out that the early deciders were
  the same people whose advice were being sought
  after by other voters.

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• The early deciders were sophisticated who held
  well-developed political views use the media
  wisely critically. They are capable of
  listening evaluating opposition speeches. They
  gained information that help them advice others
  so that others would be more resistant to
  political campaign.
• They are the gate-keepers. Screening information
  passing on items that would help others share
  their views.

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• These people were known as opinion leaders and
  those who follow their advise were opinion
  followers.

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• Lazarsfeld Katz (1955) based on their
  experienced research conceptualized that how
  people use the media to develop the of
• Two-step flow theory

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• In this theory opinion leaders existed at all
  level of society and that the flow of their
  influence tended to be horizontal rather than
  vertical.
• Opinion leaders influenced people like themselves
  rather than those above or below them in the
  social order.

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• Opinion leaders differ from followers n term of
  personal attributes, use the media more, were
  socially active share social status.

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Limitations of Lazarsfelds Model

• 1. Survey cannot measure how people actually use
  media on a day-to-day basis. E.g. the more
  educated the person is the lesser they are
  influence by the media. But the lesser the
  educated person is, the more the stronger the
  linked to various media.

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• 2. Surveys are expansive to study peoples use of
  the media content.
• 3. Lazarsfeld procedures and methodologies are
  conservative in assessing medias power. It only
  measuring voting decisions.

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• 4. Other research on Two-step flow produced
  contradictory findings depending on (a) types of
  information being transmitted and (b) social
  conditions exist at that particular time. These
  patterns are constantly changing.

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• 5. Survey can be useful for studying changes
  over time but are considered crude techniques.
  i.e. Lazarsfeld interview people once a month
  problem of recalling.
• 6. Surveys omit many other variables which could
  further insights,

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• 7. The period is only true for the time
  allocated. Result would definitely differ if
  measurement taken at different timing.

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The Main points of Limited Effects Theory

• 1. Media rarely directly influence individuals.
• Most people are sheltered from direct
  propaganda manipulation. People did not
  believe everything what they hear or see in
  the media.
• They turn to others (family, friends,
  coworkers social groups) for advice
  interpretations.

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• 2. There is a two-step flow of media influence.
• Media will be only be influential if the
  opinion leaders who guide others are influenced
  first. Because opinion leaders are
  sophisticated , critical, not easily
  manipulated by media content.

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• 3. By the time most people becomes adults, they
  have developed strong held group commitments
  such as political party, religious affiliations
  that individual media messages are powerless
  to overcome.

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• These commitments cause people to reject certain
  messages. E.g. Voters of certain parties will
  only subscribe to the party magazines etc.

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• 4. When media effects do occur, it will be small
  and isolated.
• Small pocket will be influenced.

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What would be the Strength and weakness of the
Two-Step Flow Theory

• Strength
• 1. Focus on the environment in which effect can
  and cant occur.
• 2. Stress importance of opinion leaders in
  formation of public opinion.
• 3. This theory is based on inductive rather
  than deductive reasoning.

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• 4. Effectively challenges the simplistic
  notions of direct effects.

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• Weaknesses
• 1.It is limited to its time (time frame)
• 2. Report only the voting behavior.
• 3. Downplay reinforcement as an important media
  effect.
• 4. Uses survey method.
• 5. Later research demonstrate a multi flow
  effects.

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Part II
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Two-Step Flow Theory

• SUMMARY (recapture)
• TWO-STEP FLOW THEORY
• The idea that messages pass from the media
  through (inter-mediaries) such as opinion leaders
  to opinion followers.
• GATE-KEEPERS
• In two-step flow, people who screen media
  messages pass on those messages that help
  others share their views.

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• OPINION LEADERS
• In two-step flow, those who pass on information
  to opinion followers.
• OPINION FOLLOWERS
• In two-step flow, those who receive information
  from opinion leaders.

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• MIDLE-RANGE THEORY
• A theory composed of empirical generalizations
  based on empirical fact.
• INDUCTIVE
• An approach to theory composed of empirical
  generalizations based on empirical facts.

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Limitations in the Lazarsfelds Model

• 1. Survey cannot measure how people use media on
  day-to day basis.
• e.g. more educated people tend to
  underestimate media influence on their
  decisions whereas less educated people might
  overestimate it.
• 2. Surveys are very expansive way to study
  specific media contents.

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• 3. The research design data analysis
  procedures Lazarsfelds developed are very
  conservative.
• 4. Further research on two-step flow has
  produced highly contradictory findings.
• These flow has been found to differ greatly
  according to the type of information being
  transmitted the social conditions that exist.

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• 5. Surveys can be useful for studying changes
  over time, but are relatively crude techniques.
• 6. Surveys omit many other potentially
  important variables.

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• INDIRECT EFFECTS THEORY
• When media seemed to have an effect, that effect
  is filtered through other parts of the society
  e.g. through friends or other social groups.
• The following are the most important findings on
  limited effect research between 1945-1960

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• 1. The media rarely directly influence They
  turn to others (family, friends, coworkers,
  social groups etc) for advice interpretations.
• 2. There is two-step flow of media influence.
• Media will only be influential if he opinion
  leaders who guide others are influence first.

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• 3. By the time most people become adults , they
  have developed strong held values media are
  powerless to overcome.
• When media effects do occur they will be small
  and isolated.

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Part III
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Attitude Change Theory

• Initiated in the 20th Century.
• Second World War provided the laboratory
  development of the attitude change theory.
• US went to war and needed to be able to mount an
  effective counter offensive against the Nazi.
• The war provided important motivation for
  researchers interested in attitude change
  research.

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Attitude Change Theory

• It was a simple convenience , were the military
  saw soldiers in training, physiologists saw
  subjects available.

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The Work of Hovland

• He was to undertake experimental evaluations of
  the effectiveness of various military programs.
• Testing on the military propaganda film Why we
  fight and to measure its effectiveness
  (indoctrination goals) using the experimental
  design method.
• The researcher hope that as the result of viewing
  the films there might find shifts in peoples
  attitudes.

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• Hovlands found that although the movies were
  successful in increasing knowledge, they are not
  as effective in influencing attitudes
  motivations.
• Film produced little change that what change
  did occur was influence by peoples individual
  differences. This contradict with mass society
  theory.

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• The second finding was that as an outcome of the
  theory they were able to direct the trends of
  future attitude change theory. i.e. while films
  were good in parting factual information but
  certainly not effective in changing attitudes.
• Thus using control experimental groups is good
  method in changing peoples attitudes.

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• In particular the nature and the organizational
  of the appeal.
• They also found out that the more highly people
  value their membership in a group, the more
  closely their attitudes will conform to choose
  the group.

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• They also found out that individuals status
  (personality factors) has very little to do to be
  persuaded. E.g. more intelligent people are more
  likely to be persuaded if the message they
  receive is based on solid and logical arguments.
  

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• The reasons that why mass media is rarely direct
  because it is always mediated By
• (a) Individual differences
• (b) Group membership or relationships.
• The two factors serve as effective barriers to
  media influence.

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Persuasion research influencing media

• In persuasion and attitude change theory two
  factors are important
• 1. Reorganization of the individual
  differences. (psychological make up) (DeFleur
  1970).
• 2. Social categories
• That is the broad assumptions that urban
  societies are collectively and whose behavior
  can be aggregated (or more or less uniform).

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• People with similar backgrounds (age, gender,
  income level, religious affiliations etc) will
  have similar patterns of media exposure and
  similar reactions to that exposure.
• This generalizations derived partly from
  Lazarfelds work.

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Selective Processes

• The change theory was adopted by influential
  scholars like Lazarfeld, to Klaper to De Fleur
  and was later developed into the idea of
  cognitive consistency.

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY
• The idea that people consciously and
  unconsciously work to preserve their existing
  views and avoiding messages that challenged them.
• Leon Festinger took up this idea and developed in
  his theory of Cognitive Dissonance.

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• COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
• The idea that information that is inconsistent
  with a persons already held attitude created
  psychological discomfort or dissonance.
• People generally work to keep their knowledge of
  themselves and their knowledge of the world
  somewhat consistence.

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• If for some reasons a person knows several things
  that are not psychologically consistent with
  another, he will, in variety of ways, try to make
  them more consistence.
• This process is known as selective process.

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• SELECTIVE PROCESS
• Exposure (attention), retention, and perception,
  physiological process design to reduce
  dissonance.
• This defense mechanisms that we use to protect
  ourselves (our egos) from information that would
  threaten us.

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• Klapper (1960) wrote by and large people tend to
  expose themselves to those mass communications
  that are in accord with their existing attitudes
  and interest. Consciously or unconsciously they
  avoid communications of the opposite. In the
  event that they are exposed to unsympathetic
  materials, they often seem not to perceive it, OR
  interpret to fit their existing views OR to
  forget about it.

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Persuasion influenced on the study of media.

• Attitude Change Researchers identify three forms
  of Selectivity
• 1. Selective Exposure
• 2. Selective Retention
• 3. Selective Perception

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Selective exposure

• People tendency to expose themselves to messages
  that are consistent with their preexisting
  attitudes and belief.
• E.g. In Lazarsfelds study of the voters, 2/3 of
  the voters managed to see and hear more of their
  own sides propaganda than the opposites.

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Selective Retention

• People end to remember best and longest those
  messages that are meaningful to them.

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Selective Perception

• People will alter the meaning the messages so
  they become consistent wit preexisting attitudes
  and beliefs.
• It is a mental or psychological image of the
  message so that the meaning is in line the
  persons belief and attitudes.

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• E.g. Allport Poseman (1945) study of the rumors
  proved this point (the fight between a white
  black American. Originally the knife was in the
  hand of the white man, and because of rumors
  spreads, it quickly changes to the black man).
• 60 yrs. had passed by can the same scenario
  happened in 2005? What do you think?

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Applications of Attitude Change Theory

• STRENGTHS
• 1. It pays a deep attention to the process in
  which messages can cant have effects.
• 2. Provides insight into influence of
  individual differences group affiliation in
  shaping media influence.
• 3. Attention to selective processes helps
  clarify how individuals processes information

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• WEAKNESSES
• 1. Manipulation of the variables (e.g.
  messages) overestimate the power and
  underestimate the medias influence.
• 2. Focuses only on effects of media messages
• 3. Uses attitude change as only measure of
  effects ignoring other subtle forms of medias
  influence.

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Limitations of Persuasion Research

• 1. The experiments conducted in laboratory the
  results cannot be generalized because the time
  conducted too short.
• 2. Experiments suited only to measure
  immediate effects of specific media content on
  small homogeneous groups of people.
• 3. Limitation of standardized instruments
  (statistics).

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• 4. Experiments are crude techniques for
  examining the influence of media over time.
• 5. Limitation of experimentation design

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At the end of this lesson you should have
acquired the following concepts

• 1. Attitude Change Theory
• 2. Festingers Cognitive Dissonance.
• 3. Selective processes Selective Exposure,
  Selective Retention Selective Perception.
• 4. Strength weaknesses of the Attitude Change
  Theory.

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• 5. Limitations of the Persuasion Research
  (experiments)