LEARNING

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LEARNING
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Definition

• The term learning covers every modification in
  behavior to meet environmental requirements.
• (Gardner
  Murphy, 1968)
• Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or
  the strengthening or weakening of old behavior as
  the result of experience.
• (Henry P
  Smith, 1962)
• Learning can be defined as any relatively
  permanent change in behavior which occurs as a
  result of practice or experience.

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• Learning is a change in behavior- change- better
  or worse
• Its a change that take place through practice or
  experience changes due to growth and maturation
  are not learning.
• The change must be relatively permanent, it must
  last for a fairly long period.

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Characteristics

• Process
• Experience and training
• Bring changes in the behavior
• Prepares an individual for necessary adjustment
  and adaptation.
• Goal- oriented
• Universal and continuous

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Types of Learning

• Verbal learning-acquisition of verbal behavior
• Motor learning-motor skills
• Concept learning- mental image.
• Problem solving- higher learning reasoning,
  thinking, power of observation, discrimination,
  generalization, imagination, ability to infer and
  draw conclusions etc.
• Serial learning- alphabet, numbers, tables etc.
• Paired- associate learning- based on the
  association.

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CONDITIONING

• Its a form of associative learning.
• Two types of conditioning
• - Classical/pavlovian conditioning.
• - Instrumental/operant
• conditioning.

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Classical Conditioning

• Ivan P Pavlov (1927)
• Components of classical conditioning
• 1.The unconditional stimulus (UCS)- unconditioned
  means that the stimulus in question need not
  require prior training to produce the desired
  response.
• 2. The unconditional response (UCR)-
• -It is the response that elicited by the UCS.
• -UCS reliably elicits the UCR
• - UCR is often referred to as a highly reflexive
  response, one which happens quickly and quite
  automatically when the UCS occurs.

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• 3. The conditioned stimulus (CS)
• The CS is that stimulus which comes to elicit a
  response by being paired properly in time with
  the UCS (Bell).
• 4. The Conditioned Response (CR)
• The CR is learned reflex which arises when the
  CS is paired properly in time with the UCS. The
  CR is referred to as a conditioned reflex for it
  becomes conditional upon the presentation of the
  CS.
• Learning is a habit formation and based on the
  principle of association and substitution.

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Principles of Conditioning

• 1.Extinction- The process related with the
  gradual disappearance of the conditioned response
  on connecting the S-R association is called
  extinction.
• If conditioned stimulus present alone- decrease
  the CR and disappear
• 2.Spontaneous Recovery- after extinction
  reappearance of CR spontaneously but pairing of
  CS and US

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Cont

• 3.Stimulus Generalization- Pavlovs dog provided
  response (salivation) not at the sight of the
  food but to every stimulus like ringing of the
  bell, appearance of light, sound of the foot
  steps of the feeder etc. associated with its
  getting of the food.
• Stimulus Discrimination- Stimulus discrimination
  is the opposite of stimulus generalization
• Sharp contrast to response in a usual fashion the
  subject learns to react differently in different
  situation.

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Cont..

• This may help us learning to react only to a
  single specific stimulus out of the multiplicity
  of stimuli and enabling us to distinguish and
  discriminate among a variety of stimuli present
  in our environment.

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Application of Classical Conditioning

• Fear, Love and Hatred towards an object
  phenomenon or environment are created through
  classical conditioning.
• Example If a father punishing continuously
• Teachers misbehavior and improper teaching may
  leads to distaste towards the subject

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OPERANT(INSTRUMENTAL) CONDITIONING

• BF Skinner
• Basis of operant conditioning is trial and error
  theory of Thorndike
• Operant is a set of acts which constitutes an
  organisms doing something. Ex raising head,
  walking etc.
• Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning
  process whereby a response is made more probable
  or more frequent by reinforcement.

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Reinforcer and Reinforcement

• Reinforcement is an identical to the presentation
  of reward.
• Reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or
  removal increase the probability of a response
  re-occuring.
• Reinforcement
• 1.Positive- presentation
• 2.Negative removal/withdraw
• Both are leads to favorable consequence

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• 1.Continuous reinforcement schedule
• 2.Fixed interval reinforcement schedule
• 3.Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
• 4.Variable reinforcement schedule
• Reinforcement and its schedule play a key role in
  the conditioning or operant behavior and
  acquisition of learning

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Cont

• Continuous reinforcement schedule increase the
  response rate, thus least resistance to
  extinction and lowest response rate during
  learning.
• Escape Learning- an organism acquires a response
  that decrease or ends some aversive stimulation
• Avoidance Learning- an organism acquires a
  response that prevents some aversive stimulation
  from occurring.
• Two- process theory of avoidance given by Mowrer.

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Punishment

• It occurs when an event following a response
  decrease the tendency to make that response
• Presentation of aversive stimulus-weakening
  response.
• Mechanism of operant conditioning
• Once a response occurs, its reinforced through a
  suitable reinforcer
• In due course response gets conditioned by
  constantly reinforcing.
• Shaping

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Implication of the operant conditioning

• Behavior modification
• Development of human personality.
• Development of teaching and programmed learning.

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Trial and Error Learning

• Edward L Thorndike (1874-1949)
• Experiment on hunger cat in a puzzle box and its
  components are
• 1.Drive- hunger which was intensified with the
  sight of food.
• 2.Goal- to get the food by getting out of the box
• 3.Block- the cat was confined in the box with a
  closed door.

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Cont..

• 4.Chance success- as a result of this striving
  and random movement the cat by chance succeeded
  in opening the door.
• 5.Selection- gradually the recognized the correct
  manipulation of latch.
• 6.Fixation- the cat learned the proper way of
  opening the door by eliminating all the incorrect
  response and fixing only the right response

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Laws of Learning

• Law of Readiness Readiness is preparation for
  action. If the child is ready to learn, he learns
  more quickly, effectively and with greater
  satisfaction than if he is unwilling to learn.
• It warns us not make the child learn till he is
  ready to learn and also not to miss any
  opportunity of providing learning experience if
  the child is already prepared to learn.
• State of mind should be very well and organized
  and maximum use of this knowledge should be made
  by the teacher.

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2.Law of effect

• The learning takes place properly when it results
  in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure
  out of it.
• In a situation where the child meets with failure
  or gets no satisfaction, the progress on the path
  of learning is blocked.
• All the pleasant experience have a lasting
  influence and are remembered for a long time,
  while the unpleasant ones are soon forgotten.
• Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction leads to
  effectiveness of learning

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3. Law of exercise

• Law of use- strengthening of connection with
  practice.
• Law of disuse- weakening
• 4.Law of multiple response
• When individual is confronted with a new
  situation he responds in a variety of ways before
  arriving at the correct response

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5. Law of attitude

• The learner performs the task properly if
  he/she has developed healthy attitude/
• 6.Law of analogy
• An individual responds new situation on the
  basis of the responses made by him in similar
  situation
• 7. Law of associative shifting
• Any response which is possible can be linked
  with any stimulus

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Theory of Insightful Learning

• Wolfgang Kohler- gestalt psychologist
• The process of learning as a gestalt- an
  organized whole. A thing cannot be understood by
  study of its constituent parts but only by study
  of it as a totality is the basic idea behind this
  theory.
• Learning as a purposive, exploratory and creative
  enterprise
• Gestalt psychology used the term insight to
  describe the perception of the whole situation by
  the learner and his/her intelligence in
  responding to the proper relationship

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Cont..

• Chimpanzee experiment
• Insightful learning- sudden aha or bolt of
  lightening. Its bound to depend upon the factors
  given below
• Experience
• Intelligence
• Learning situation
• Initial efforts
• Repetition and Generalisation

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Transfer of Learning

• The carry over of habits of thinking, feeling or
  working of knowledge or skills from one learning
  area to another usually is referred to as the
  transfer of learning (Crow Crow, 1973)
• Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge,
  training, and habits acquired in one situation to
  another situation.

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Types of transfer

• Positive Transfer- when something previously
  learned benefits performance or learning in a new
  situation
• Negative Transfer- when something previously
  learned hinders performance or learning in a new
  situation.
• Zero Transfer- previous learning makes no
  difference at all to the performance or learning
  in a new situation.