Motivation and work

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Motivation and work

• Chapter 12

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Motivational Concepts
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Concepts and Theories of Motivation

• Help to discover unity in diversity
• Motivation cannot be observed directly
• inferred from what we can observe
• motivation is an intervening variable-something
  used to explain the relationship b/t
  environmental stimuli and behavioral responses
• Why does motivation vary over time?
• b/c of changes in motivation, particular stimuli
  elicit different responses at different times

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Sources of motivation

• Seems endless, but most fall into four major
  categories
• Human behavior is motivated by biological factors
  (need for food and water)
• Emotional factors
• Cognitive factors can motivate human behavior
  according to their perception of the world around
  them
• Social factors (comfort vs. fashion)

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Instincts and evolutionary psychology

• Used instinct theory to explain human and animal
  motivation
• Instincts-automatic, involuntary behavior
  patterns consistently triggered by a particular
  stimuli
• Also called fixed-action patterns
• William McDougall (1908) 18 human instincts
• Problem b/c these became labels for behavior
• Still believe that some instincts are present at
  birth which has given credence to evolutionary
  psychologists
• All such behaviors have evolved to insure that
  the species survives
• Individuals who possess these instincts are more
  likely to have children and pass those instincts
  along

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Drives and incentives

• Emphasizes biological factors
• Based on homeostasis
• Drive reduction theory-needs are created when
  homeostasis is off
• Creates needs
• Brain responds to the needs through drives which
  prompt the organism to act on that need
• DRT recognizes how learning influences
  recognition of drives
• Primary drives-needs that arise from basic
  biological needs
• Secondary drives-motivate us to act as if we have
  an unmet need (need for money)

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Arousal Theory

• General level of activation reflected in the
  state of several physiological systems
• Moderate arousal allows people to perform their
  best (waiting until the last day vs. waiting
  until 2 hours before it is due to complete an
  assignment)
• Arousal Theory states that people are motivated
  to behave in ways that maintains for them an
  optimal level of arousal
• Differs for each individual

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Incentive Theory

• Emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli that
  can motivate behavior by pulling us towards them
  or pushing them away
• Can obtain positive incentives and avoid negative
  incentives
• Availability at the time and the value place don
  the incentive varies from person to person
• Wanting (being attracted to stimuli) vs. liking
  (immediate evaluation of how pleasurable a
  stimulus is)
• Wanting more dominant and depends on whether
  person is deprived

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A hierarchy of motives

• Abraham Maslow (1970)- some needs take precedent
  over others
• http//honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/Fac
  DevCom/guidebk/teachtip/maslow.htm
• Somewhat arbitrary b/c needs are not universally
  fixed

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hunger
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The physiology of hunger

• Be sure you know the work of
• Ancel Keys
• A.L. Washburn and Walter Cannon

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Hunger and eatingBiological signals for hunger
and satiety

• Hunger
• Satiety
• Signals from the Stomach
• Can affect eating, but do not play a major role
  in the control of normal eating
• Seem to appear only when you are very hungry or
  very full
• Signals from the Blood
• Most important signals re hunger are sent
  through the blood
• Short-term intake signals (when to start and stop
  eating) called satiety factors
• Cholecystokinin (CCK)-regulates meal size
• Released as a hormone within the body and a
  neurotransmitter in the brain

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Hunger and eatingBiological signals for hunger
and satiety cont.

• Glucose also monitored by the brain
• Main form of sugar used by the body
• Causes the release of insulin, hormone which
  allows the body to use the glucose that has been
  released
• Leptin- hormone involved in long-term regulation
  of fat stores
• Cells that store fat have genes that produce
  leptin in response to increases in fat supplies
• Leptin is released into the bloodstream
• When it reaches special receptors in the
  hypothalamus, provides info to the brain about
  increasing fat stores
• When leptin levels are high, hunger decreases
  which helps to reduce food intake
• When leptin levels are low, hunger increases

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Hunger and eatingBiological signals for hunger
and satiety

• Hunger and the Brain
• Several regions of the hypothalamus are
  responsible for the control of hunger and eating
• Role of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
• Substances that modify the actions of
  neurotransmitters
• Role of the ventromedial nucleus
• Tells an animal that they do not have to eat
• If this is destroyed, the animal will continue to
  eat
• Role of the lateral hypothalamus
• Contains networks that stimulate eating
• These two regions interact to create a set point
• What is the set point based on?
• How does it work?
• Body also has to maintain basal metabolic rate

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The psychology of hunger

• Brains control of hunger and eating not only a
  hypothalamus thing
• What else can affect what we eat and when we eat
  it?
• What are you craving?
• Why do our cravings often correspond to our
  moods?
• Culture also affects taste-how?
• Neophobia-Why might this develop?

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Eating disorders

• Obesity
• Condition in which a persons BMI is 30 or more
• Reasons for such a large population of obese
  Americans include
• Increased portion sizes
• Greater availability of high fat foods
• Decreased physical activity
• Obese people get more energy from food than their
  body metabolizes
• Other factors involved in obesity
• Learned behavior from childhood
• Stress-eaters

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Eating disorders cont.

• Anorexia Nervosa
• Eating disorder characterized by a combination of
  starvation, self- induced vomiting and laxative
  use that results in weight-loss to below 85 of
  normal
• Most who suffer are young females-as they are
  becoming more concerned with their body image
• 4-30 of anorexics die of starvation, biochemical
  imbalances or suicide
• Causes are unclear
• Seem to develop a fear of getting fat
• Treatment includes drugs, hospitalization and
  psychotherapy
• http//www.webmd.com/mental-health/anorexia-nervos
  a/anorexia-nervosa-topic-overview

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Eating disorders cont.

• Bulimia Nervosa
• Involves eating large amounts of food and then
  getting rid of the food through self-induced
  vomiting or the use of laxatives
• Binging and purging
• Usually females and begins with a desire to be
  thin
• Differences b/t bulimics and anorexics
• Those with bulimia feel their behavior is a
  problem
• Usually not life threatening although it can be
  physically damaging
• Tooth enamel, fingers, intestines, etc.
• Approx. 1-3 of adolescent or college-age women
  have this disorder
• Caused by several factors
• Low self-esteem , desire for perfection, desire
  to measure up to societal/cultural standards of
  beauty, depression, etc.
• http//www.bulimiaguide.org/

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Sexual Motivation

• Not required for individual survival
• Does ensure the survival of the species

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The physiology of sex

• Sexual response cycle
• Pattern of physiological arousal during and after
  sexual activity
• 4 stages
• Excitement phase
• Plateau phase
• Orgasm
• Resolution phase
• Masters and Johnson (1966)
• Hormones responsible estrogen, progestin, and
  androgens (estradiol, progesterone and
  testosterone)

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The Physiology of Sex cont.

• Have both organizational and activational effects
• Organizational effects permanent changes in the
  brain that changes the way a person thereafter
  responds to the hormones
• Occurs around the time of birth
• female-like or male-like areas of the brain
  formed
• Sexually dimorphic
• Activational effects are temporary behaviors that
  last only when the hormone levels are elevated
• Causes puberty which leads to an increase in
  sexual desire and an interest in sexual behavior

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Social and cultural factors in sexuality

• Development of gender roles
• Attitudes regarding premarital sex and teen
  pregnancy are often conflicting
• Can also vary over time within the same culture
• Teen pregnancy
• American teens have lower rate of reported sexual
  activity, but lower rate of reported
  contraceptive use
• As a result, higher incidence of teen pregnancy
  and abortion
• Other contributing factors
• Ignorance
• Guilt related to sexual activity
• Lack of communication regarding birth control
• Use of drugs and alcohol
• Affects of the media

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Social and cultural factors in sexuality cont.

• Has also led to an increase in teens w/sexually
  transmitted diseases
• Girls seem to be most vulnerable
• At higher risk for infertility and certain
  cancers as a result
• Has led to education regarding abstinance
• Why are more teens waiting to have sex?
• Intelligence, religious faith, activity in the
  community
• Sexual Orientation
• Norm is heterosexual homosexuality seen as a
  disease, mental disorder and sometimes a crime
• 1973-homosexuality dropped from the DSMD
• Often victims of discrimination, even crime

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The need to belong
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The Need to Belong

• Aiding survival
• Social bonds increase survival rates
• Cooperation in groups also aids in survival-how?
• Wanting to belong
• Acting to increase social acceptance
• Increase self-esteem
• Most social behavior aims to increase belonging
• Can be good and bad
• need to define we can create bad relationships

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The Need to Belong cont.

• Maintaining relationships
• Resist breaking social bonds
• How do relationships shape motivation?
• Fortifying health

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Motivation at Work
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• Work often identifies us
• Meaningful when have a little more control over
  their work environment
• More satisfied when
• Encouraged to participate in decisions about how
  work should be done
• Given problems to solve without being told how to
  solve them
• Taught more than one skill
• Given individual responsibility
• Given public recognition for good performance
• Allowed to set and achieve clear goals
• Effective at maintaining work motivation

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Achievement Motivation

• Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation
• What are the characteristics of an individual
  with a high need for achievement?
• If they feel they have tried their best, many
  with a high need for achievement will not be
  disappointed by failure
• Differences in achievement motivation evident in
  their goals
• Those that adopt learning goals tend to learn by
  watching others and struggle to figure it out
  themselves
• When ask for help, looking for explanation not a
  quick, easy answer
• Those that adopt performance goals are more
  concerned with demonstrating the competence for a
  task they believe they possess

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Achievement Motivation cont.

• Tend to seek info about hoe well they performed
  in comparison to others rather than how to
  improve their performance
• When they ask for help, looking for the answer
  rather than how to do it
• Tend to avoid new challenges if they are not
  confident in their ability to succeed
• Will quit if they are not successful
• Development of Achievement Motivation
• Tends to be learned in early childhood
• Those who scored high on achievement tests had
  parents who
• Encouraged their child to try new, harder tasks
• Give praise and other rewards for success
• Encourage child to find ways to succeed rather
  than complain
• Prompt child to go onto the next more difficult
  task

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Achievement Motivation cont.

• Culture influences achievement motivation
• Also influenced by how much a culture values
  achievement
• It is possible to increase achievement motivation
  in those who did not have much training in
  early childhood