CHAPTER 16: THE EVOLUTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

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CHAPTER 16 THE EVOLUTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
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WHAT DID LIFE LOOK LIKE BILLIONS OF YEARS AGO?
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PROKARYOTES WERE THE FIRST ORGANISMS

• THEY ARE ALSO THE SIMPLEST ORGANISMS

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LIFE ON EARTH
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ALL LIFE TODAY ARISES FROM REPRODUCTION OF
EXISTING LIFE

• BUT HOW DID FIRST LIFE OCCUR?
• ORGANIC MOLECULES PRECEDED THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
• THE EARLIEST FORM OF LIFE WAS MUCH SIMPLIER THAN
  TODAY

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ORGANIC MOLECULES THEN JOINED TOGETHER TO FORM
POLYMERS

• NUCLEIC ACIDS RNA AND DNA
• PROTEINS

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LIFE NEEDS REPLICATION MACHINERY

• NUCLEIC ACIDS WERE PROBABLY THE FIRST POLYMERS
• RNA CAME FIRST
• CAN SERVE AS GENES AND AS ENZYMES
• RIBOZYMES ARE RNAS THAT CAN CARRY OUT ENZYME-LIKE
  ACTIVITIES

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RNA WERE THE FIRST GENES
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RNA USED TO MAKE SIMPLISTIC PROTEINS OR CELL-LIKE
SUBSTANCES
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CELL-LIKE ENTITIES CONTAIN SELF REPLICATING RNA
AND RNA-POLYPEPTIDES

• PROTOBIONTS
• THOSE THAT GREW AND REPLICATED MORE EFFICIENTLY
  THAN OTHERS WOULD HAVE INCREASED IN NUMBER AND
  PASSED ABILITIES ON TO THE NEXT GENERATION

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DEVELOPMENT OF PROTOBIONTS

• WITH TIME, PROTOBIONTS ARE
• ENCLOSED BY A MEMBRANEDEVELOP ABILITY TO
  REPLICATECARRY OUT ESSENTIAL CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• THEN, CONTAIN DNA
• GET OTHER MOLECULES FROM THE ENVIRONMENT

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THE NEXT STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT

• ORGANISMS CAN PRODUCE THEIR OWN NEEDED MOLECULES
• USE SUNLIGHT OR ENERGY-RICH MOLECULES IN THE
  ENVIRONMENT FOR ENERGY AUTOTROPHS
• HETEROTROPHS USE PRODUCTS OF AUTOTROPHS OR THE
  AUTOTROPHS THEMSELVES

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DIAGRAM OF THE DIIFERENT DOMAINSOF ORGANISMS

• BACTERIA AND ARCHAE PROKARYOTES NO
  NUCLEUSEUKARYA EUKARYOTES HAVE A NUCLEUS

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PROKARYOTES

• THRIVE IN HABITATS THAT ARE TOO COLD, TOO HOT,
  TOO SALTY, TOO BASIC (pH) FOR ANY EUKARYOTE
• PROKARYOTES ARE MUCH SMALLER THAN EUKARYOTES

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ARCHAE ARE COMMON IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS

• HIGH SALT ENVIRONMENTS EXTREME HALOPHILES
• VERY HOT WATER EXTREME THERMOPHILES
• ANAEROBIC ENVIRONMENTS (NO OXYGEN) AND GIVE OFF
  METHANE
• METHANOGENS

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BUT, MANY DISEASES ARE CAUSED BY PROKARYOTES

• THESE ARE THE BACTERIA
• BUBONIC PLAGUE
• ANTHRAX
• BACTERIA CAN ALSO BE BENEFICIAL
• THEY ARE FOUND IN OUR INTESTINES AND MOUTH THAT
  PREVENT OTHER ORGANISMS FROM GROWING

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URINARY INFECTIONS

• THE USE OF ANTIBIOTICS, WILL KILL THE BACTERIA
• SOMETIMES, THE PERSON WILL GET A
• YEAST INFECTION FUNGI TOOK OVER

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PROKARYOTES COME IN DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES

• COCCI SPHERESBACILLI RODSSPIROCHETES
  CURVED OR SPIRAL

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STRUCTURAL FEATURES HELP PROKARYOTES SURVIVE

• EXTERNAL STRUCTURES
• CELL WALL
• MAINTAINS SHAPE, PREVENTS CELL FROM BURSTING,
  PROVIDES PHYSICAL PROTECTION
• MANY DRUGS TARGET THE CELL WALL NOT FOUND IN
  EUKARYOTE CELLS

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THE CELL WALL CAN BE COVERED BY A CAPSULE

• A LAYER OF SUGARS OR PROTEINS
• FUNCTIONS IN ADHERENCE
• CAN INVADE ORGANISMS
• STREPTOCOCCI CAPSULE ALLOWS IT TO ATTACH TO THE
  HUMA RESPIRATORY TRACT

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THE CAPSULE IS USED FOR ATTACHMENT
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OTHER PROKARYOTES USE PILI FOR ATTACHMENT
HAIR-LIKE APPENDAGES
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FLAGELLA ALLOW PROKARYOTES TO MOVE
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REPRODUCTION

• PROKARYOTES DIVIDE BY A PROCESS CALLED BINARY
  FISSION
• A SINGLE CELL WILL BECOME TWO CELLS
• THEN TWO CELLS CAN BECOME FOUR CELLS

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ADAPTATIONS FOR SURVIVAL

• ENDOSPORE
• SPECIALIZED, RESISTANT CELLS FOR HARSH CONDITIONS
• TO KILL THESE ORGANISMS, VERY HIGH TEMPERATURE IS
  USED

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ENDOSPORE CONTAINS A THICK, PROTECTIVE COAT
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INTERNAL STRUCTURES

• MEMBRANES PERFORM VARIED FUNCTIONS
• CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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• WHERE IS THE DNA OF BACTERIA LOCATED?
• WHERE IS THE DNA LOCATED IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS?

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• DNA OF BACTERIA IS LOCATED IN THE CENTRAL REGION,
  NOT IN A NUCLEUS
• THE RIBOSOMES, USED FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IS ALSO
  DIFFERENT FROM EUKARYOTIC CELLS
• SOME ANTIBIOTICS TARGET BACTERIAL RIBOSOMES

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PROKARYOTES DIFFER IN HOW THEY OBTAIN ENERGY AND
CARBON

• AUTOTROPHS ARE ORGANISMS THAT MAKE THEIR OWN
  ORGANIC COMPOUNDS FROM INORGANIC SOURCES
• HETEROTROPHS ARE ORGANISMS THAT OBTAIN THEIR
  CARBON FROM INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

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BACTERIA CAUSE DISEASE

• MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS
• TUBERCULOSIS
• STAPHYLCOCCUS AEURUS
• AFFECTS THE SKIN, ALSO TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME
• STREPTOCOCCUS STREP THROAT
• BORRELIA BURGDORFERI SPIROCHETE LYME DISEASE,
  TRANSMITTED BY TICKS

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BACILLUS ANTHRACIS - ANTHRAX

• CAN ALSO BE USED AS A BIOLOGICAL WEAPON
• CAN BE RELEASED INTO THE ATMOSPHERE

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BACTERIA ALSO PERFORM BENEFICIAL FUNCTIONS

• CONVERT NITROGEN IN THE ATMOSPHERE TO NITROGEN
  THAT PLANTS CAN USE
• DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC WASTES AND DEAD
  ORGANISMS TO INORGANIC CHEMICALS
• REMOVE POLLUTANTS FROM SOIL, WATER AND AIR

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EUKARYOTES EVOLVED FROM PROKARYOTES

• MEMBRANE INFOLDING THEORY
• ALL OF THE MEMBRANES OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS AROSE
  FROM INWARD FOLDS OF THE PROKARYOTIC MEMBRANE
  EXCEPT FOR THE MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS

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ENDOSYMBIOSIS

• SYMBIOSIS CLOSE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN ORGANISMS
  OF TWO OR MORE SPECIES
• SMALL PROKARYOTES ESTABLISHED RESIDENCES WITHIN
  OTHER LARGER PRKARYOTES
• EXPLAINED EVOLUTION OF MITOCHONDRIA AND
  CHLROPLASTS
• MITOCHONDRIA EVOLVED FIRST

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PROTISTS MOSTLY UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTES

• SIMPLEST AND FIRST EUKARYOTES
• ALL OTHER EUKARYOTES DERIVED FROM THE PROTISTS
• DIVERSE GROUP
• FOUND IN EQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
• MOST ARE AEROBIC REQUIRE OXYGEN FOR GROWTH

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROTISTS

• PROTOZOA
• SLIME MOLDS
• ALGAE

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EXAMPLES OF PROTISTS

• PROTOZOA HETEROTROPHIC, EAT OTHER ANIMALS FOR
  FOOD
• DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROTOZOA FLAGELLATES,
  AMOEBA, APICOMPLEXANS AND CILIATES
• MOVE BY MEANS OF FLAGELLA, CILIA AND PSEUDOPODIA

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EXAMPLES OF PROTOZOA FLAGELLATES

• GIARDIA TRYPANOSOMA

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EXAMPLE OF PROTOZOA AMOEBA

• MOVE AND FEED BY MEANS OF PSEUDOPODIA

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CELLULAR SLIME MOLDS (PROTISTS) HAVE BOTH
UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR FORMS
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ALGAE ARE PROTISTS THAT UNDERGO PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• THEY USE CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER TO PRODUCE FOOD
• OTHER PROTISTS ARE HETEROTROPHS THEY MUST EAT
  OTHER ORGANISMS FOR FOOD
• ALGAE CAN BE UNICELLULAR OR MULTICELLULAR

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF UNICELLULAR ALGAE

• DINOFLAGELLATES
• DIATOMS
• GREEN ALGAE

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UNICELLULAR ALGAE DIATOMS
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UNICELLULAR ALGAE GREEN ALGAE
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ALGAE CAN ALSO BE MULTICELLULAR SEAWEED

• EXAMPLE RED ALGAE

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MULTICELLULAR VS. UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS

• UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS ALL OF LIFES ACTIVITIES
  OCCUR IN A SINGLE CELL
• MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS SPECIALIZED CELLS THAT
  PERFORM DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS AND ARE DEPENDENT ON
  EACH OTHER
• MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS AROSE FROM PROTISTS