WAYS OF KNOWING

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WAYS OF KNOWING

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How do we find out things about the world? How
do we know the things we know?
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Personal Observation

• Direct/personal experience
• Appealing to our senses
• Experiential reality (Babbie, 2001)
• Pitfalls
• Tend to be casual - not deliberate or systematic
• Prone to errors
• How things are seen, understood and reported will
  normally be affected by personal biases

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Tradition

• the accepted way of thinking or doing things
• Cumulative body of knowledge and understanding
  that is passed on from generation to generation
• In every society there is agreement reality
  (Babbie, 2001). Things are considered to be true
  because people in the society accepts them to be
  true. (Bush tea will a cure colds.)
• Traditional knowledge very tenacious but
  sometimes totally or partially inaccurate.
  Influenced by factors such as prejudice

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Authority

• Learn from parents, teachers, experts/
  professionals, media, textbooks etc.
• Tradition can be viewed as a form of authority
• Common and highly recommended source, but
  accuracy not guaranteed. Example
• Authorities may speak on topics they know
  little about.
• The media often project cultural biases and
  stereotypes
• When 2 authorities disagree on the same subject,
  who do we believe?
• Over-reliance on this source may make us too
  dependent on the opinions and judgments of others.

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Common sense

• Relying on ordinary and sometimes faulty
  reasoning. What makes sense.
• Using street smart reasoning as a basis for
  providing answer to question, often no attention
  to rules of logics.
• The casual and non-systematic use of the
  inductive and deductive approaches to knowing,
  understanding and solving problems

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Problems with these approaches

• These ways of finding out things about the world
  tend to be done in a casual and often haphazard
  manner, rather than in a deliberate and
  systematic way
• There are no mechanisms to to ensure the accuracy
  of the information produced
• As a consequence, the knowledge generated by
  these methods often contains errors

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Common errors of these approaches

• Inaccurate observation - make mistakes about
  what is observed and what is reported
• Overgeneralization taking too few events as
  evidence of the general pattern
• Inadequate understanding Our interpretations
  and conclusions are limited by our personal
  experiences
• Selective observation - narrow focus on specific
  individuals or events
• Illogical reason no relation between evidence
  and conclusion e.g. the exception proves the
  rule

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Errors (cont.)

• Premature closure you think you have all the
  answers so you terminate inquire
• Make up information Ex-post facto hypothesizing
  trying to explain away contradictions without
  further inquiry.
• Halo effect we give greater value to the ideas
  of people with the stronger reputation, paying
  little regard to the ideas of the less famous
• Ego involvement we protect our ego at the
  expense of the quality of our work
• Ecological fallacy- erroneously drawing
  conclusions about an individual based on
  observations of a group

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How to avoid these problems?

• Take the strengths of all these methods
• Incorporate them into a very structured and
  deliberate technique
• Include mechanisms and rules to prevent or
  minimize errors and to protect the parties
  involved in the process
• - All these are achieved through the Research
  approach to understanding reality - Research

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Research

• Research is a collection of methods used in the
  creation of scientific knowledge about the
  natural or social world (Grosof Sardy, 1999)
• It is a process involving the use of the
  scientific method to provide answers to questions
  (Robertson, 2000)
• It is an approach by which we attempt to find
  out, systematically, with the support of
  demonstrable facts and standards, how the world
  and its components work. ( Babbie, 2002)
• It is a collection of methods which facilitates
  the search for objective answers to questions and
  the resolution problems (Khan, 1975)

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Key Concepts in definitions

• Process a series of linked activities
  requires order in execution
• Systematic deliberate and methodical. Following
  established procedures, orderly, structured.
  Disciplined
• Standards principles of expected or required
  behaviour. Code of conduct. Ideals. Norms
• Demonstrable facts verifiable data. Empirical
  evidence. Logically verifiable.
• Objective answers based on verifiable evidence,
  free from the biases of the researcher

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Key Concepts in definitions (cont.)

• The scientific method an approach to creating
  knowledge that can be defined in terms of all the
  concepts defined above.
• This approach is process oriented, it is
  systematic, it produces objective answers from
  demonstrable facts, while adhering to certain
  standards.
• Social researchers use the scientific method to
  ensure the accuracy of the knowledge they produce
  and safety of the persons involved.

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The scientific method

• A cyclical process used by researchers to
  collect, analyze and interpret data, in their
  search for new, useful and accurate knowledge
• The body of knowledge is referred to as science.
• Persons who use this method are Scientists
• The approach is commonly referred to as
  Scientific Research
• There is Scientific Research and Non-Scientific
  methods of knowing such as tradition and
  authority

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Some Principles of Scientific Research

• Empiricism - An approach to research relying
  heavily on observation and measurement.
• Objectivity - A dispassionate unbiased approach
  to analyzing the world and presenting information
• Systematic observation - A structured and
  organized way of investigating

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Some Principles of Scientific Research (cont)

• Replication
• The process of repeatedly conducting studies that
  test and confirm a hypothesis.
• Direct replication the researcher duplicates
  the design
• Conceptual/indirect replication- providing
  additional confirmation by measuring the
  behaviour in a different way, using different
  participants or using a different design

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Attitude of the Scientist

• Open-minded - any approach may be correct, any
  answer may be true
• Uncertain - no one has all the answers, no one
  already knows
• Skeptical - Any approach may be wrong, any
  answer may contain errors
• Cautious - Not all conclusions are facts
• Ethical - Research should not harm others

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Norms of the Scientific Community

• Universalism Irrespective of who conducts the
  research it should be judge on scientific merit.
• Organised Scepticism All evidence should be
  scrutinised and challenged/ questioned. Must
  ensure that the methods used are reliable and
  valid.
• Disinterestedness scientist should be neutral,
  receptive and as impartial as is humanly
  possible. They should accept and even search for
  evidence that runs counter to their position.

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Norms of the Scientific Community (cont)

• Communalism Scientific knowledge is for the
  common good of mankind, it should be shared
• Honesty Cheating in scientific research is a
  major taboo. No fabrication of the data no
  addition, no omission. Logical conclusions

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WHY DO WE NEED TO DO RESEARCH?