Research and Diversity

1
Research and Diversity

• Why do research?
• Psychology is an empirical science which
  emphasizes or is based on observation
  experiment.

2
The Scientific Method

• Theory
• Hypothesis
• Operational Definition
• Principle of Falsifiability
• Subjects
• Selection Factor
• Replication

3
Theory

• An organized system of assumptions and principles
  that purports to explain a specified set of
  phenomena and their interrelationships.

4
Hypothesis

• A statement that attempts to predict or to
  account for a set of phenomena scientific
  hypotheses specify relationships among events or
  variables and are empirically tested.

5
Operational Definition

• A precise definition of a term in a hypothesis,
  which specifies the operations for observing and
  measuring the process or phenomenon being
  measured.

6
Principle of Falsifiability

• The principle that a scientific theory must make
  predictions that are specific enough to expose
  the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation
  that is, the theory must predict not only what
  will happen, but also what will not happen.

7
Other Concepts

• Subjects
• Participants in a scientific study
• Replication
• The ability to repeat, reproduce or copy a study

• Selection Factor
• The bias source that may occur when subjects are
  allowed to determine for themselves whether or
  not they will receive a treatment condition in a
  scientific study.

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Samples Populations Representing Human
Diversity

• Sample a segment of the population
• Population refers to a complete group of
  organisms or events
• Infer is to draw a conclusion
• Generalization extend from the particular to the
  general

• Random Sample each member of a population has an
  equal chance of being selected to participate
• Stratified Samples identified subgroups in the
  population are represented proportionately in the
  sample
• Volunteer Bias people who offer to participate in
  research studies differ

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Methods of Observation

• The Case-Study Method
• The Survey Method
• The Testing Method
• The Naturalistic-Observation Method

• The Laboratory-Observation Method
• The Correlational Method
• The Experimental Method

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The Case-Study Method

• A carefully drawn biography that may be obtained
  through interviews, questionnaires, and
  psychological tests

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The Survey Method

• A method of scientific investigation in which a
  large sample of people is questioned about their
  attitudes or behavior

12
The Testing Method

• Psychologists use psychological tests like
  intelligence, aptitude, and personality, to
  measure various traits and characteristics among
  a population

13
Testing

• Standardize To develop uniform procedures for
  giving and scoring a test.
• Norms Established standards of performance.
• Reliability Consistency of scores derived from a
  test.
• Validity The ability of a test to measure what
  it was designed to measure.

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Observations

• Naturalistic- ObservationA scientific method in
  which organisms are observed in their natural
  environments

• Laboratory-Observation A method where a place
  is found in which theories, techniques, and
  methods are tested and demonstrated

15
The Correlational Method

• A scientific method that studies the
  relationships between variables
• Correlation coefficient is a number between 1.00
  to -1.00 that expresses the strength and
  direction of the relationship between two
  variables

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Types of Correlations

• Positive correlation Increases in one variable
  are associated with increases in the other
  decreases are likewise associated
• Negative correlation Increases in one variable
  are associated with decreases in the other

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The Experiment Hunting for Causes

• Experimental Variables
• Experimental and Control Conditions
• Experimenter Effects
• Advantages and Limitations of Experiments

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Experimental Variables

• Independent Variable A variable that an
  experimenter manipulates.
• Dependent Variable A variable than an
  experimenter predicts will be affected by
  manipulations of the independent variable.

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Experimental Method

• Treatment refers to a condition received by
  participants so that its effects may be observed

• Experimental subjects receive the treatment
• Control subjects do not receive the experimental
  treatment but for whom all other conditions are
  comparable to those of experimental subjects

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Experimental Method Cont.

• Placebo refers to a bogus treatment that has the
  appearance of being genuine
• Blind refers to unawareness as to whether or not
  one has received a treatment

• Double-blind refers to a study where neither the
  subjects nor the persons measuring results know
  who has received the treatment

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Advantages and Limitations of Experiments

• Experiments allow conclusions about cause-effect
  relationships.
• Participants in experiments are not always
  representative of larger population.
• Much psychology research is carried out using
  colleges students as participants.
• Field Research Descriptive or experimental
  research conducted in a natural setting outside
  the laboratory.

22
Different Research Methods

• Cross-Sectional Study Subjects of different ages
  are compared at a given time.
• Longitudinal Study Subjects are followed and
  periodically reassessed over a period of time.

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From the Laboratory to the Real World

• Choosing the Best Explanation
• Sometimes there are competing explanations for
  the same events
• Judging the Results Importance
• Statistical significance does not prove that a
  result is important, only that it is reliable
• Meta-analysis combines and analyzes data from
  many studies

24
Unique Problems in Cross-Cultural Research

• Obtaining a representative sample
• Measurement leading to imposed etic (Berry, 1969)
• Equivalence in behavioral definition research
  instruments (Lonner, 1979)

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Factors Influencing Representative Samples

• Subject availability
• Willingness to participate
• Geographic Isolation
• Unavailability

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Measurement

• The behavioral definition and measurement
  techniques of the researchers home culture may
  not transfer easily to another culture thereby
  leading to an imposed etic (Berry, 1969)

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Equivalence

• Functional Equivalence whether behavioral
  phenomenon serves the same purpose or intent
• Conceptual Equivalence meanings associated with
  similar stimulus across different cultures
• Metric Equivalence assumes numeric scales
  measure a concept equally (Problem e.g., I.Q.)

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Linguistic/Translation Equivalence

• Researchers understanding of subjects response
  their understanding of researchers questions
• Culturally idiographic terms words or terms
  unique to the culture
• Culturally isomorphic terms words or terms in
  both cultures with different meanings
• E.g., out-of-sight, out-of-mind view/intellect

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Possible Solutions

• Use back translation
• E.g., Pauls Social Skills Scale
• Use an emic approach with observation and
  collaboration from members of the other group
• E.g., AIDS education
• S.E. Asian New Year Festival

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Advantages of Cross-Cultural Research

• Determine whether a variable is etic or emic
• Opportunities to assess the relative contribution
  of culture to behavior
• Increased range of concepts being studied
• Opportunity to unconfound variables where they
  dont occur together in different cultures e.g.,
  Oedipal Complex in Trobriand Islands (Malinowski,
  1927)
• Increased sensitivity to context
• Contribute to the understanding of potential
  cognitive differences between cultures e.g.,
  language thought

31
Indigenous Approach to Research

• An emic approach whose starting points are
  concerns within a culture
• If the understanding of the emic analysis is
  appropriate, it may be compared to other cultures

32
Starting Points for Indigenous Research

• Researchers living in other countries note what
  is interesting or striking
• Researchers ask colleagues from other cultures to
  note what is interesting or striking about the
  researchers culture
• Note what current explanatory frameworks miss or
  what behaviors are de-emphasized in journals
  already
• Consider behavior concepts and practices all
  cultures must deal with e.g., production care
  of children