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Lecture 6: Long Term Memory Basic Principles

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Title: Lecture 6: Long Term Memory Basic Principles


1
Lecture 6 Long Term Memory - Basic Principles
Psyc 317 Cognitive Psychology
2
Issues with deep processing
  • Deep processing isnt really well defined
  • Deep processing doesnt always take longer
  • Slow Count vowels in automobile
  • Fast Car-Transportation or vegetable?
  • Meaning task is faster

3
Aiding Encoding Forming additional connections
  • More descriptive sentences for memory
  • Chicken
  • She cooked the chicken.
  • The great bird swooped down and carried off the
    struggling chicken.
  • Which sentence would help you to remember the
    word chicken?

4
Aiding Encoding Forming additional connections
  • Referencing yourself

5
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
  • Does deeper processing always result in better
    memory? No.
  • Retrieval is enhanced if method of encoding
    matches method of retrieval
  • Known as transfer-appropriate processing

6
Morris, et al. (1977)
  • Two methods of encoding
  • Semantic acquisition Does the word fit into this
    sentence The ___ rode a bicycle.
  • Deep processing
  • Rhyming acquisition Does the word rhyme with
    toy?
  • Shallow processing

7
Morris, et al. (1977)
  • One method of retrieval
  • Rhyming test Present unseen word
  • Which word presented before rhymes with current
    word?
  • Summary of the two conditions
  • Semantic acquisition (SA), rhyming test (RT)
  • Rhyming acquisition (RA), rhyming test (RT)

8
Morris, et al. Results
9
What does this mean?
  • The principle of encoding specificity
  • We learn information together with context
  • Childhood memories are remembered at the place
    where they were encoded
  • State-dependent learning
  • Memory is best if a person is in the same state
    for encoding and retrieval
  • Lets look at some examples

10
Why do these help encoding?
  • Retrieval cues
  • More information tied to a memory
  • When trying to remember a memory, you can
    activate related information
  • Related to
  • Retrieval (coming up soon)
  • Distributed activation (future lecture)

11
Aiding Encoding Organizing Information
  • Jenkins Russell (1952)
  • People will spontaneously organize items as they
    recall them
  • Demo
  • Remember the words in the list I read
  • Write the words down in any order

12
Aiding Encoding Organizing Information
  • One person Tell me the words you wrote down in
    order
  • Apple, plum, banana, shirt, shoe, sofa, desk,
    chair
  • Bower et. al (1969) - Present words in concept
    trees
  • Organized vs. random trees

13
Organized tree for minerals
  • Organized trees 73 words
  • Random trees 21 words

14
Organization adds a meaningful framework
  • If the balloons popped, the sound wouldnt be
    able to carry since everything would be too far
    away from the correct floor. A closed window
    would also prevent the sound from carrying, since
    most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since
    the whole operation depends on the steady flow of
    electricity, a break in the middle of the wire
    could also cause problems.

15
Bransford Johnson (1972)
  • What?!?
  • Does this help?

16
Outline
  • Structure of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
  • Encoding information into LTM
  • Storing information in LTM
  • Retrieving information from LTM

17
How do we store memories?
  • In the brain! At the synapse level
  • Memories are represented through changes in the
    synapse (Hebb, 1948)

18
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
  • New experience causes neuron A to release
    neurotransmitter onto neuron B
  • Causes minor structural changes
  • Repeated activity causes greater changes between
    neurons A and B
  • This leads to enhanced firing
  • Known as long-term potentiation

19
Hebbian Learning
20
Ideas like this win Nobel Prizes
  • Many researchers have shown that LTP is easiest
    to generate in memory centers of the brain
  • Example the hippocampus
  • Kandel (2001) won a Nobel Prize for his work in
    this area

21
LTP occurs in neural circuits
  • Hebb expanded his LTP idea to include groups of
    neurons firing at once
  • At first, circuits are weak
  • But they fire close together more and more to
    form links

22
Remembering Sallys number
23
Memory consolidation
  • Period to consolidate memories is known as the
    consolidation period
  • If consolidation is disrupted for a lot of
    memories, the patient has retrograde amnesia
  • Electroconvulsive therapy - patients cannot
    remember events before the ECT session

24
The hippocampus and memory
  • Consolidation is directed by the temporal lobe -
    specifically, the hippocampus
  • H.M. had hippocampus removed to control seizures,
    but he couldnt form new long-term memories

25
H.M.s brain damage
  • H.M.s damage was not just in the hippocampus,
    but most of his medial-temporal lobe

26
Conclusions from H.M.
  • Hippocampus is not needed for short-term or
    working memory
  • Hippocampus IS needed for forming conscious LTMs
  • Hippocampus is not where memory is stored
  • Hippocampus is not needed for procedural learning

27
Outline
  • Structure of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
  • Encoding information into LTM
  • Storing information in LTM
  • Retrieving information from LTM

28
How do we remember things?
  • Retrieval!
  • Most memory failures are that of retrieval
  • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
  • Mind blanks
  • Etc.
  • How can retrieval be made better?

29
Retrieval Cues
  • Real-world examples
  • Visiting the house you grew up in brings back
    childhood memories
  • Something random reminds you to go to the store
  • Other examples?

30
Tulving Pearlstone (1966)
  • Present 48 words randomly from groups

31
Mantyla (1986)
  • Subjects saw 600 nouns, write 3 words associated
    with each noun

32
State-depedent learning
  • State-dependent learning
  • Memory is best if a person is in the same state
    for encoding and retrieval
  • Lets look at some examples

33
Godden Baddeley (1975)Learning Environment
34
Grant et. al (1998)Learning Conditions
35
Elch Metcalfe (1989)Learning Mood
36
Encoding specificity works!
  • By matching internal and external conditions of
    encoding and retrieval, remember more!
  • So if youre tired now, make sure youre tired
    for the exam!

37
What this says about studying Elaboration
  • Study using deep, elaborative rehearsal
  • Dont just read, but think-Make up questions and
    quiz each other
  • Peterson (1992) - 82 of students highlight
  • No difference in performance between highlighting
    and not highlighting
  • Why is that? Not necessarily deep processing
  • What else can you do?

38
What this says about studying Organize
  • You need a meaningful framework to put the
    information into
  • Use my lecture outlines
  • Create your own lecture outlines
  • What else can you do?

39
What this says about studying Associate
  • Create mnemonics!
  • Four lobes of the brain
  • Frontal in the front
  • Parietal is partway between the front and back
  • Temporal lobe is near the temples
  • Other mnemonics?

40
What this says about studying Take Breaks
  • Get some sleep! Dont cram
  • Give your brain some time for consolidation
  • Distributed vs. massed practice effect (Reder
    Anderson, 1982)
  • Difficult to hold attention over a long time
  • Studying after a break give you feedback about
    how much you remembered
  • Studying same material over different periods can
    aid retrieval

41
What this says about studying Encoding
Specificity
  • Match study and test conditions
  • Break into the classroom and study?
  • Study in as many places as possible
  • Reduce how much of the knowledge is tied to a
    specific context
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