Title: Lecture 6: Long Term Memory Basic Principles
1Lecture 6 Long Term Memory - Basic Principles
Psyc 317 Cognitive Psychology
2Issues with deep processing
- Deep processing isnt really well defined
- Deep processing doesnt always take longer
- Slow Count vowels in automobile
- Fast Car-Transportation or vegetable?
- Meaning task is faster
3Aiding Encoding Forming additional connections
- More descriptive sentences for memory
- Chicken
- She cooked the chicken.
- The great bird swooped down and carried off the
struggling chicken. - Which sentence would help you to remember the
word chicken?
4Aiding Encoding Forming additional connections
5Transfer-Appropriate Processing
- Does deeper processing always result in better
memory? No. - Retrieval is enhanced if method of encoding
matches method of retrieval - Known as transfer-appropriate processing
6Morris, et al. (1977)
- Two methods of encoding
- Semantic acquisition Does the word fit into this
sentence The ___ rode a bicycle. - Deep processing
- Rhyming acquisition Does the word rhyme with
toy? - Shallow processing
7Morris, et al. (1977)
- One method of retrieval
- Rhyming test Present unseen word
- Which word presented before rhymes with current
word? - Summary of the two conditions
- Semantic acquisition (SA), rhyming test (RT)
- Rhyming acquisition (RA), rhyming test (RT)
8Morris, et al. Results
9What does this mean?
- The principle of encoding specificity
- We learn information together with context
- Childhood memories are remembered at the place
where they were encoded - State-dependent learning
- Memory is best if a person is in the same state
for encoding and retrieval - Lets look at some examples
10Why do these help encoding?
- Retrieval cues
- More information tied to a memory
- When trying to remember a memory, you can
activate related information - Related to
- Retrieval (coming up soon)
- Distributed activation (future lecture)
11Aiding Encoding Organizing Information
- Jenkins Russell (1952)
- People will spontaneously organize items as they
recall them - Demo
- Remember the words in the list I read
- Write the words down in any order
12Aiding Encoding Organizing Information
- One person Tell me the words you wrote down in
order - Apple, plum, banana, shirt, shoe, sofa, desk,
chair - Bower et. al (1969) - Present words in concept
trees - Organized vs. random trees
13Organized tree for minerals
- Organized trees 73 words
- Random trees 21 words
14Organization adds a meaningful framework
- If the balloons popped, the sound wouldnt be
able to carry since everything would be too far
away from the correct floor. A closed window
would also prevent the sound from carrying, since
most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since
the whole operation depends on the steady flow of
electricity, a break in the middle of the wire
could also cause problems.
15Bransford Johnson (1972)
16Outline
- Structure of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Encoding information into LTM
- Storing information in LTM
- Retrieving information from LTM
17How do we store memories?
- In the brain! At the synapse level
- Memories are represented through changes in the
synapse (Hebb, 1948)
18Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
- New experience causes neuron A to release
neurotransmitter onto neuron B - Causes minor structural changes
- Repeated activity causes greater changes between
neurons A and B - This leads to enhanced firing
- Known as long-term potentiation
19Hebbian Learning
20Ideas like this win Nobel Prizes
- Many researchers have shown that LTP is easiest
to generate in memory centers of the brain - Example the hippocampus
- Kandel (2001) won a Nobel Prize for his work in
this area
21LTP occurs in neural circuits
- Hebb expanded his LTP idea to include groups of
neurons firing at once - At first, circuits are weak
- But they fire close together more and more to
form links
22Remembering Sallys number
23Memory consolidation
- Period to consolidate memories is known as the
consolidation period - If consolidation is disrupted for a lot of
memories, the patient has retrograde amnesia - Electroconvulsive therapy - patients cannot
remember events before the ECT session
24The hippocampus and memory
- Consolidation is directed by the temporal lobe -
specifically, the hippocampus - H.M. had hippocampus removed to control seizures,
but he couldnt form new long-term memories
25H.M.s brain damage
- H.M.s damage was not just in the hippocampus,
but most of his medial-temporal lobe
26Conclusions from H.M.
- Hippocampus is not needed for short-term or
working memory - Hippocampus IS needed for forming conscious LTMs
- Hippocampus is not where memory is stored
- Hippocampus is not needed for procedural learning
27Outline
- Structure of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Encoding information into LTM
- Storing information in LTM
- Retrieving information from LTM
28How do we remember things?
- Retrieval!
- Most memory failures are that of retrieval
- Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
- Mind blanks
- Etc.
- How can retrieval be made better?
29Retrieval Cues
- Real-world examples
- Visiting the house you grew up in brings back
childhood memories - Something random reminds you to go to the store
- Other examples?
30Tulving Pearlstone (1966)
- Present 48 words randomly from groups
31Mantyla (1986)
- Subjects saw 600 nouns, write 3 words associated
with each noun
32State-depedent learning
- State-dependent learning
- Memory is best if a person is in the same state
for encoding and retrieval - Lets look at some examples
33Godden Baddeley (1975)Learning Environment
34Grant et. al (1998)Learning Conditions
35Elch Metcalfe (1989)Learning Mood
36Encoding specificity works!
- By matching internal and external conditions of
encoding and retrieval, remember more! - So if youre tired now, make sure youre tired
for the exam!
37What this says about studying Elaboration
- Study using deep, elaborative rehearsal
- Dont just read, but think-Make up questions and
quiz each other - Peterson (1992) - 82 of students highlight
- No difference in performance between highlighting
and not highlighting - Why is that? Not necessarily deep processing
- What else can you do?
38What this says about studying Organize
- You need a meaningful framework to put the
information into - Use my lecture outlines
- Create your own lecture outlines
- What else can you do?
39What this says about studying Associate
- Create mnemonics!
- Four lobes of the brain
- Frontal in the front
- Parietal is partway between the front and back
- Temporal lobe is near the temples
- Other mnemonics?
40What this says about studying Take Breaks
- Get some sleep! Dont cram
- Give your brain some time for consolidation
- Distributed vs. massed practice effect (Reder
Anderson, 1982) - Difficult to hold attention over a long time
- Studying after a break give you feedback about
how much you remembered - Studying same material over different periods can
aid retrieval
41What this says about studying Encoding
Specificity
- Match study and test conditions
- Break into the classroom and study?
- Study in as many places as possible
- Reduce how much of the knowledge is tied to a
specific context