Chapter 9~Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy

1

• Chapter 9 Cellular Respiration Harvesting
  Chemical Energy

2
Whats thepoint?
The pointis to makeATP!
ATP
3
Principles of Energy Harvest

• Catabolic pathway v
  Fermentation vCellular
  Respiration C6H12O6 6O2 ---gt 6CO2 6H2O E
  (ATP heat)

4
Harvesting stored energy

• Glucose is the model
• catabolism of glucose to produce ATP

RESPIRATION making ATP ( some heat)by burning
fuels in many small steps
ATP
enzymes
CO2 H2O heat
CO2 H2O ATP ( heat)
5
How do we harvest energy from fuels?

• Digest large molecules into smaller ones
• break bonds move electrons from one molecule to
  another
• as electrons move they carry energy with them
• that energy is stored in another bond, released
  as heat or harvested to make ATP

loses e-
gains e-
oxidized
reduced


e-
e-
redox
6
How do we move electrons in biology?

• Moving electrons in living systems
• electrons cannot move alone in cells
• electrons move as part of H atom
• move H move electrons

oxidation
reduction
e-
7
Coupling oxidation reduction

• REDOX reactions in respiration
• release energy as breakdown organic molecules
• break C-C bonds
• strip off electrons from C-H bonds by removing H
  atoms
• C6H12O6 ? CO2 the fuel has been oxidized
• electrons attracted to more electronegative atoms
• in biology, the most electronegative atom?
• O2 ? H2O oxygen has been reduced
• couple REDOX reactions use the released energy
  to synthesize ATP

O2
8
Oxidation reduction

• Oxidation
• adding O
• removing H
• loss of electrons
• releases energy
• exergonic

• Reduction
• removing O
• adding H
• gain of electrons
• stores energy
• endergonic

9
Moving electrons in respiration
like in the bank

• Electron carriers move electrons by shuttling H
  atoms around
• NAD ? NADH (reduced)
• FAD2 ? FADH2 (reduced)

reducing power!
NADH
H
carries electrons as a reduced molecule
10
Oxidizing agent in respiration

• NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
• Removes electrons from food (series of reactions)
• NAD is reduced to NADH
• Enzyme action dehydrogenase
• Oxygen is the eventual e- acceptor

11
Electron transport chains

• Electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins)
• Shuttles electrons that release energy used to
  make ATP
• Sequence of reactions that prevents energy
  release in 1 explosive step
• Electron route food---gt NADH ---gt electron
  transport chain ---gt oxygen

12
Cellular respiration overview

• (anaerobic)
• 1.Glycolysis cytosol degrades glucose into
  pyruvate
• (aerobic)
• Pyruvate oxidation
• 2.Krebs Cycle mitochondrial matrix pyruvate
  into carbon dioxide
• 3.Electron Transport Chain inner membrane of
  mitochondrion electrons passed to oxygen

13
Whats thepoint?
The pointis to makeATP!
ATP
14
Glycolysis

• Breaking down glucose
• glyco lysis (splitting sugar)
• ancient pathway which harvests energy
• where energy transfer first evolved
• transfer energy from organic molecules to ATP
• still is starting point for ALL cellular
  respiration
• but its inefficient
• generate only 2 ATP for every 1 glucose
• occurs in cytosol

In thecytosol?Why doesthat makeevolutionaryse
nse?
Thats not enoughATP for me!
15
Evolutionary perspective
Enzymesof glycolysis arewell-conserved

• Prokaryotes
• first cells had no organelles
• Anaerobic atmosphere
• life on Earth first evolved without free oxygen
  (O2) in atmosphere
• energy had to be captured from organic molecules
  in absence of O2
• Prokaryotes that evolved glycolysis are ancestors
  of all modern life
• ALL cells still utilize glycolysis

You meanwere related?Do I have to invitethem
over for the holidays?
16
Overview
glucose C-C-C-C-C-C

• 10 reactions
• convert glucose (6C) to 2 pyruvate (3C)
• produces 4 ATP 2 NADH
• consumes2 ATP
• net yield 2 ATP 2 NADH

fructose-1,6bP P-C-C-C-C-C-C-P
DHAP P-C-C-C
G3P C-C-C-P
pyruvate C-C-C
DHAP dihydroxyacetone phosphate G3P
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
17
Glycolysis summary
endergonic invest some ATP
ENERGY INVESTMENT
-2 ATP
G3P C-C-C-P
exergonic harvest a little ATP a little NADH
ENERGY PAYOFF
4 ATP
like in the bank

• net yield
• 2 ATP
• 2 NADH

NET YIELD
18
Substrate-level Phosphorylation

• In the last steps of glycolysis, where did the P
  come from to make ATP?
• the sugar substrate (PEP)

• P is transferred from PEP to ADP
• kinase enzyme
• ADP ? ATP

ATP
I get it! The Pi camedirectly fromthe substrate!
19
Energy accounting of glycolysis
glucose ? ? ? ? ? pyruvate
6C
3C
2x
All that work! And thats all I get?
Butglucose hasso much moreto give!

• Net gain 2 ATP 2 NADH
• some energy investment (-2 ATP)
• small energy return (4 ATP 2 NADH)
• 1 6C sugar ? 2 3C sugars

20
Is that all there is?

• Not a lot of energy
• for 1 billon years this is how life on Earth
  survived
• no O2 slow growth, slow reproduction
• only harvest 3.5 of energy stored in glucose
• more carbons to strip off more energy to harvest

glucose ? ? ? ? pyruvate
6C
Hard wayto makea living!
21
But cant stop there!
raw materials ? products
Glycolysis glucose 2ADP 2Pi 2 NAD ? 2
pyruvate 2ATP 2NADH

• Going to run out of NAD
• without regenerating NAD, energy production
  would stop!
• another molecule must accept H from NADH
• so NAD is freed up for another round

22
How is NADH recycled to NAD?
without oxygen anaerobic respiration fermentation

with oxygen aerobic respiration

• Another molecule must accept H from NADH

pyruvate
NAD
H2O
CO2
NADH
NADH
O2
acetaldehyde
NADH
acetyl-CoA
NAD
NAD
lactate
lactic acidfermentation
which path you use depends on who you are
Krebs cycle
ethanol
alcoholfermentation
23
Fermentation (anaerobic)

• Bacteria, yeast

back to glycolysis??

• beer, wine, bread

• Animals, some fungi

back to glycolysis??

• cheese, anaerobic exercise (no O2)

24
Alcohol Fermentation
bacteria yeast
back to glycolysis??

• Dead end process
• at 12 ethanol, kills yeast
• cant reverse the reaction

Count thecarbons!
25
Lactic Acid Fermentation
animalssome fungi
?
back to glycolysis??

• Reversible process
• once O2 is available, lactate is converted back
  to pyruvate by the liver

Count thecarbons!
26
Pyruvate is a branching point

• Pyruvate

fermentation anaerobicrespiration
mitochondria Krebs cycle aerobic respiration
27
Glycolysis is only the start

• Glycolysis
• Pyruvate has more energy to yield
• 3 more C to strip off (to oxidize)
• if O2 is available, pyruvate enters mitochondria
• enzymes of Krebs cycle complete the full
  oxidation of sugar to CO2

3C
1C
28
Oxidation of pyruvate

• Pyruvate enters mitochondrial matrix
• 3 step oxidation process
• releases 2 CO2 (count the carbons!)
• reduces 2 NAD ? 2 NADH (moves e-)
• produces 2 acetyl CoA
• Acetyl CoA enters Krebs cycle

3C
2C
1C
Wheredoes theCO2 go? Exhale!
29
Krebs cycle
1937 1953

• aka Citric Acid Cycle
• in mitochondrial matrix
• 8 step pathway
• each catalyzed by specific enzyme
• step-wise catabolism of 6C citrate molecule
• Evolved later than glycolysis
• does that make evolutionary sense?
• bacteria ?3.5 billion years ago (glycolysis)
• free O2 ?2.7 billion years ago (photosynthesis)
• eukaryotes ?1.5 billion years ago (aerobic
  respiration organelles ? mitochondria)

Hans Krebs 1900-1981
30
Count the carbons!
acetyl CoA
pyruvate
citrate
oxidationof sugars
This happens twice for each glucose molecule
x2
31
Count the electron carriers!
acetyl CoA
pyruvate
citrate
reductionof electroncarriers
This happens twice for each glucose molecule
x2
32
Whassup?
So we fully oxidized glucose C6H12O6 ? CO2
ended up with 4 ATP!
Whats the point?
33
Electron Carriers Hydrogen Carriers

• Krebs cycle produces large quantities of electron
  carriers
• NADH
• FADH2
• go to Electron Transport Chain!

ADP Pi
ATP
Whats so important about electron carriers?
34
Energy accounting of Krebs cycle
pyruvate ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? CO2
3C
ATP

• Net gain 2 ATP
• 8 NADH 2 FADH2

35
Value of Krebs cycle?

• If the yield is only 2 ATP then how was the Krebs
  cycle an adaptation?
• value of NADH FADH2
• electron carriers H carriers
• reduced molecules move electrons
• reduced molecules move H ions
• to be used in the Electron Transport Chain

like in the bank
36
Krebs Cycle review

• If molecular oxygen is present.
• Each pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA (begin
  w/ 2) CO2 is released NAD ---gt
  NADH coenzyme A (from B vitamin),
  makes molecule very reactive
• From this point, each turn 2 C atoms enter
  (pyruvate) and 2 exit (carbon dioxide)
• Oxaloacetate is regenerated (the cycle)
• For each pyruvate that enters 3 NAD reduced to
  NADH 1 FAD reduced to FADH2 (riboflavin,
  B vitamin) 1 ATP molecule

37
ATP accounting so far

• Glycolysis ? 2 ATP
• Krebs cycle ? 2 ATP
• Life takes a lot of energy to run, need to
  extract more energy than 4 ATP!

Theres got to be a better way!
I need a lotmore ATP!
A working muscle recycles over 10 million ATPs
per second
38
There is a better way!

• Electron Transport Chain
• series of proteins built into inner
  mitochondrial membrane
• along cristae
• transport proteins enzymes
• transport of electrons down ETC linked to pumping
  of H to create H gradient
• yields 36 ATP from 1 glucose!
• only in presence of O2 (aerobic respiration)

Thatsounds morelike it!
39
Remember the Electron Carriers?
glucose
Krebs cycle
Glycolysis
G3P
8 NADH 2 FADH2
2 NADH
Time tobreak openthe piggybank!
40
Electron Transport Chain
Building proton gradient!
NADH ? NAD H
intermembranespace
H
H
H
innermitochondrialmembrane
H ? e- H
C
e
Q
e
H
e
FADH2
FAD
H
NADH
2H
O2
H2O

NAD
NADH dehydrogenase
cytochromebc complex
cytochrome coxidase complex
mitochondrialmatrix
What powers the proton (H) pumps?
41
Electron Transport Chain
Intermembrane space
C
Q
NADH dehydrogenase
cytochromebc complex
cytochrome coxidase complex
Mitochondrial matrix
42
Stripping H from Electron Carriers

• Electron carriers pass electrons H to ETC
• H cleaved off NADH FADH2
• electrons stripped from H atoms ? H (protons)
• electrons passed from one electron carrier to
  next in mitochondrial membrane (ETC)
• flowing electrons energy to do work
• transport proteins in membrane pump H (protons)
  across inner membrane to intermembrane space

H
H
H
TA-DA!! Moving electronsdo the work!
ADP Pi
ATP
43
But what pulls the electrons down the ETC?
electronsflow downhill to O2
oxidative phosphorylation
44
Electrons flow downhill

• Electrons move in steps from carrier to carrier
  downhill to oxygen
• each carrier more electronegative
• controlled oxidation
• controlled release of energy

make ATPinstead offire!
45
We did it!
proton-motive force

• Set up a H gradient
• Allow the protons to flow through ATP synthase
• Synthesizes ATP
• ADP Pi ? ATP

ATP
Are wethere yet?
46
Chemiosmosis

• The diffusion of ions across a membrane
• build up of proton gradient just so H could flow
  through ATP synthase enzyme to build ATP

Chemiosmosis links the Electron Transport Chain
to ATP synthesis
So thatsthe point!
47
Peter Mitchell
1961 1978

• Proposed chemiosmotic hypothesis
• revolutionary idea at the time

proton motive force
1920-1992
48
Intermembrane space
Pyruvate from cytoplasm
Inner mitochondrial membrane
H
H
Electron transport system
C
Q
NADH
H
e-
2. Electrons provide energy to pump protons
across the membrane.
1. Electrons are harvested and carried to the
transport system.
e-
Acetyl-CoA
NADH
e-
H2O
e-
Krebs cycle
3. Oxygen joins with protons to form water.
1
FADH2
O2
2
O2

2H
H
CO2
ATP
H
ATP
ATP
4. Protons diffuse back indown their
concentrationgradient, driving the synthesis of
ATP.
ATP synthase
Mitochondrial matrix
49
Taking it beyond

• What is the final electron acceptor in Electron
  Transport Chain?

O2

• So what happens if O2 unavailable?

• ETC backs up
• nothing to pull electrons down chain
• NADH FADH2 cant unload H
• ATP production ceases
• cells run out of energy
• and you die!

50
Whats thepoint?
The pointis to makeATP!
ATP
51
Review Cellular Respiration

• Glycolysis 2 ATP (substrate-level
  phosphorylation)
• Krebs Cycle 2 ATP
  (substrate-level phosphorylation)
• Electron transport oxidative phosphorylation
  2 NADH (glycolysis) 6ATP
  2 NADH (acetyl CoA) 6ATP 6 NADH
  (Krebs) 18 ATP 2 FADH2 (Krebs) 4
  ATP
• 38 TOTAL ATP/glucose
  
  

52
Cellular Respiration Other Metabolites
Control of Respiration
53
Beyond glucose Other carbohydrates

• Glycolysis accepts a wide range of carbohydrates
  fuels

• ex. starch, glycogen

• ex. galactose, fructose

54
Beyond glucose Proteins
2C sugar carbon skeleton enters glycolysis
or Krebs cycle at different stages
amino group waste product excreted as ammonia,
urea, or uric acid
55
Beyond glucose Fats
56
Metabolism

• Coordination of chemical processes across whole
  organism
• digestion
• catabolism when organism needs energy or needs
  raw materials
• synthesis
• anabolism when organism has enough energy a
  supply of raw materials
• by regulating enzymes
• feedback mechanisms
• raw materials stimulate production
• products inhibit further production

CO2
57
Control of Respiration

• Feedback Control

58
Feedback Inhibition

• Regulation coordination of production
• final product is inhibitor of earlier step
• allosteric inhibitor of earlier enzyme
• no unnecessary accumulation of product
• production is self-limiting

A ? B ? C ? D ? E ? F ? G
X
allosteric inhibitor of enzyme 1
59
Respond to cells needs

• Key point of control
• phosphofructokinase
• allosteric regulation of enzyme
• why here?
• cant turn back step before splitting glucose
• AMP ADP stimulate
• ATP inhibits
• citrate inhibits

Why is this regulation important?
Balancing act availability of raw materials vs.
energy demands vs. synthesis
60
A Metabolic economy

• Basic principles of supply demand regulate
  metabolic economy
• balance the supply of raw materials with the
  products produced
• these molecules become feedback regulators
• they control enzymes at strategic points in
  glycolysis Krebs cycle
• levels of AMP, ADP, ATP
• regulation by final products raw materials
• levels of intermediates compounds in pathways
• regulation of earlier steps in pathways
• levels of other biomolecules in body
• regulates rate of siphoning off to synthesis
  pathways

61
A Metabolic economy

• Basic principles of supply demand regulate
  metabolic economy
• balance the supply of raw materials with the
  products produced
• these molecules become feedback regulators
• they control enzymes at strategic points in
  glycolysis Krebs cycle
• levels of AMP, ADP, ATP
• regulation by final products raw materials
• levels of intermediates compounds in pathways
• regulation of earlier steps in pathways
• levels of other biomolecules in body
• regulates rate of siphoning off to synthesis
  pathways

62
Got the energy Ask Questions!!