Cognitive Approaches:

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Cognitive Approaches

• Memory

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Intention encoding
Hyde Jenkins (1969) Free recall task Group
1 Intentional encoding list of 24 words Group
2, 3, 4 Incidental encoding orienting
task Group 2 Count the number of letters in
words Group 3 Identify words with the letter
E Group 4 Pleasantness rating of words

• Explicit memorising is not always necessary for
  the development of a memory trace

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Levels of processing (Craik Lockhart, 1972)
Memory trace Record of processing whether
intentional or not Craik Lockhart Strength
or persistence of the memory is a function of the
depth of processing Type I rehearsal
(rote) Vs Type II rehearsal (elaborative)
Superficial Structural processing, analysis of
physical characteristics Deep Recognition of
item identity and processing of meaning or of
semantic characteristics Continuum form shallow
to deep
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Levels of processing How can this be tested?
Craik Tulving (1975) Visual processing Is
the word in uppercase? Phonemic processing
Does the word rhyme with Lion? Semantic
processing Can the word be inserted in the
sentence He encountered a _______ in the
street? Word follows question Yes or no timed
response Response time is an indicator of
processing time Incidental recognition test a
word is presented and the participant must
indicate if it was part of the preceding group of
words or not 50 of the words are new --
Participate in an experiment here
http//www.usd.edu/coglab/Levels.html see many
more here http//www.usd.edu/coglab/coglabmain.ht
ml
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Craik Tulving (1975) Results
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Transfer appropriate processing
According to the Levels of Processing approach
semantic encoding leads to better memory. Morris,
Bransford, Franks (1977) challenged this view
point Suggest that what is important is the fit
between encoding and retrieval Incidental
learning word appropriate for sentence or word
rhymes with Test involved standard recognition
or rhyme recognition
Related to Encoding Specificity Principle
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Structure to process

• Early theories of cognition and memory
• Insisted on structural aspects
• How is the systems structure best thought of?
• Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory, Long-term
  Memory
• Led to the development of the Working Memory
  model (Baddeley Hitch, 1974 Baddeley, 2000).
• Working Memory, to a point, also insists on
  structure as it proposes specialised modules etc.
  
• Later conception like the levels of processing
  view insist on the importance of actual
  processing and view memory result of process

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Memory Forgetting
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Brown-Peterson task Forgetting over the
short-term
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Brown-Peterson task Forgetting over the
short-term

• Figure 7.9
• Study by Peterson and Peterson (1959) people
  remembered a set of letters well after a short
  delay, but their memory faded greatly over 20
  seconds if they were prevented from rehearsing
  during that time.
• Taken as evidence supporting the idea that
  time-based decay was responsible for forgetting
  over the short-term

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Brown-Peterson task Interference-based
forgetting

• The time-based decay function only appears after
  a number of trials
• Forgetting seems to depend on proactive
  interference

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Brown-Peterson task Interference-based
forgetting

• Release from proactive interference
• Brown-Peterson task
• Change of category at the 4th trial
• Performance is increased relative to a condition
  without category change
• Control group Letter trigrams
• Experimental group are given number trigram on
  4th trial

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Decay Working Memory

• The idea of time-based decay in STM was
  re-introduced by the Working Memory model
  (Baddeley Hitch, 1974)
• More specifically - this was the case for the
  phonological loop hypothesis.
• Based on word-length effect results
• Recently very seriously challenged

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Forgetting over the long-term

• Do we forget?
• Memory loss vs Performance failure
• Theories of forgetting
• Encoding?
• Decay
• Interference
• Pro-active
• Retroactive
• Loss of retrieval cues
• Source amnesia

• Tip-of-the-tongue TOT
• Prospective Memory Forgetting
• Memory as a constructive or re-constructive
  process
• Schemas
• Eyewitness testimony

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Theories of Forgetting

• Encoding
• How deeply does something have to be encoded to
  be in LTM?
• Coins etc.
• Decay
• Disuse hypothesis
• Fading should be a function of disuse
• Not confirmed by research
• Few things change as a function of time per se
• But see paper by Wixted (2004)

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Interference Cue-based

• Interference Forgetting is produced by the
  interaction between material currently or
  previously processed and new material
• Retroactive Interference New material interferes
  with previous representations
• Proactive interference Previous representations
  hinder memory of new material

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Interference

• Retroactive pro-active interference can be
  applied to LTM retrieval.
• Learning Spanish first interferes with subsequent
  learning of Italian.
• Learning Italian interferes with the Spanish
  first learned.
• Forgetting could be a function of the similarity
  between to-be-remembered items

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Cue-based forgetting

• One suggestion is that there can be cue
  overload.
• Who is that dark-haired, Italian named, well
  known, old-ish cinema actor? He has a touch of a
  big nose?
• Pacino, DeNiro
• How many of the words used in the memory test of
  the first lecture can you remember?
• A high degree of overlap between a cue and a
  given representation is thought to heighten the
  probability of retrieval
• Encoding specificity principle

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Encoding context effects State-dependent
memory

• State dependent memory
• Moods
• Alcohol
• Context dependent memory
• External Surroundings
• Internal thought processes

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Memory as a re-constructive process

• Memory distortions
• Use of schemas
• Misinformation effect
• College students and accident video
• Contacted 31.8 mph Hit 34.0 mph
• Bumped 38.1 mph Collided 39.3 mph
• Smashed 40.8
• Source confusion or Source Amnesia Associating
  post-event info to original event.

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• http//www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/memory/

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Questions

• What year is it?
• How did you get to City U. today?
• How many pounds are there in a stone?
• What is the capital of France?
• Is a tuba a musical instrument?
• What is 4 x 12?

• Is the word see a verb?
• Are gorillas mammals?
• Who is Vin Diesel?
• How can you get to the Angel tube station?
• How many legs does a spider have?
• Approximately what time is it now?

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Long-Term Memory or is that Long-Term Memories?
Explicit Implicit Memory or memory tests
Recall vs Priming
Explicit test vs. Implicit effect
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Concepts to master

• Encoding
• Storage Retrieval
• Memory (or mental representation)
• Short-term Memory Long-term Memory in the
  information processing approach after.
• Working Memory
• Central Executive
• Phonological Loop
• Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
• Rehearsal

• Serial Position Curve
• Primacy
• Recency
• Decay
• Levels of processing
• Transfer Appropriate Processing
• Encoding specificity
• Interference
• Proactive Interference
• Retroactive Interference
• Varieties of LTM