Leadership

1
Leadership

• There is nothing more difficult to take in hand,
  more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in
  its success, than to take the lead in the
  introduction of a new order of things.
• Machiavelli 1513

2
Leadership

• The romance of leadership is still debated in
  organisational theory analysis
• 'Is there any evidence for a systematic
  relationship between leadership styles and
  organisational performance? Jaffee, 200186
• Subtext (p87)
• A means of generating stories about how kinds
  of power influence can be exerted
• but the role of leadership in organisations is
  concerned with exerting control over meanings
  interpretations of important groups
• its effectiveness is as a political tool
• Meindl et al 1985, cited in Jaffee, 2001

3
A source of political control and influence

• An more negative argument within organisational
  sociological tradition
• concerned with how leadership can influence how a
  situation is defined
• challenges managerial psychology views i.e
  leadership as an element of group and
  organisational functioning (seen by some as
  managerialist ideology)

4
Leadership Conceptual and practical dilemmas

• Leadership
• best understood in high profile, public figure
  sense
• often associated with male attributes, which may
  limit its definitions and therefore, what happens
  in reality
• may create problems for women put into leadership
  roles
• we dont like the bad ones (Hitler, Maxwell)
• we feel its absence (leaderless group,
  directionless organisation)

5
Psychological view of what is a leader - Kelly,
1991

• Nominators may make selections of leaders
  differently, depending upon their understanding
  of what the situation demands (originality
  defence of group devotion to duty, etc.)
• Leader
• one who performs a variety of jobs popularly
  recognised as "leadership" jobs (socially
  constructed)
• needs to understand his/her role in group social
  processes
• selectors anticipate role that they expect to be
  played
• Dynamic, socio-psychological interplay between
  followers leadership (e.g. political parties)

6
Authority and Leadership

• Max Webereffective exercise of authority
  requires the authority figure to possess
  legitimacy, thru. charisma, reputation, lineage
  or exceptional credentials.
• Katz Kahn (1966)occupying a formal position of
  authority is not enough must possess qualities
  to motivate energise others.
• Henry Mintzberg (1973) All managers adopt a
  leader role as one of their roles - to integrate
  individual goals/needs organisational
  goals/needs.

7
Four approaches to leadership

• Trait theories Brynman 1996 reviewed literature
  to elicit essential e.g. physique, height,
  intelligence, sociability, assertiveness - no
  commonality.
• Leadership functions and stylesTannenbaum et al
  1961, Likert 1961 Adair, 1965 e.g. task leaders
  vs. social leaders participative or exploitative
• Contingency or situational leadership concerned
  with relationships between traits/styles the
  situation or context (Fieldler 1967 Hersey,
  Blanchard Johnson, 1998)
• "New Leadership" ..... Transformationalcreate
  organisational climate/culture that motivates
  stimulates continuous learning, quality self
  initiative e.g. transformational leadership
  (Bass, 1997)

8
Management versus Leadership

• 'Leadership'
• a road, a way, steering a ship at sea, giving a
  sense of direction.
• 'Management' (Latin manus) - a hand
• 19thC corporatism industrialisation -
  managerial agents
• Managers and Leaders are they different?
  (Zaleznik 1977 HBR)
• management leadership - related but different
  roles

9
Bennis (1989)

• Managers
• administer, copy, maintain
• focus on systems structure
• rely on control
• short-range view - bottom line
• ask how when
• accept the status quo
• classic good soldier
• do things right

• Leaders
• innovation originality
• develop
• focus on people inspire trust
• long-range view - the horizon
• ask what why
• challenge the status quo
• are their own person
• do the right things

What is the purpose and effect of this type of
listing/comparison? What is the status of this
as theory?
'the liberation of talent rather than restraint
by rule Leaders aim at 'winning hearts and
minds'. Mere managers aim at optimising the use
of 'resources'. (Peters Austin, 1985).
10
Maintaining or losing leadership

• Followers have expectations (e.g. Kelly 1991)
• socio-emotional competence especially group
  reflection (West 1997)
• task competence (Fincham Rhodes 1999)
• Gap may exist between actual perceived
  competence influences willingness of followers
  to comply - Price Garland, 1981
• Idiosyncratic credit permission to deviate from
  group norms - maintaining credit is crucial to
  surviving in leadership position, Hollander, 1958

11
Classical management functions

• Fayol
• plan, organise, direct, control resources to
  achieve objectives.
• Generate follow
• policies, rules procedures (admin. gt mgt?)
• seek order control.
• handle direct resources
• money, materials, equip't, space, facilities,
• information technology
• use of time
• people
• Have 'subordinates' and communicate
• enable others to understand information,
  instructions or ideas
• Telling people what to do how to do it gt vision
  giving a sense of direction?

12
Leadership organisational effectiveness

• Common-sense research link between mgr-leader
  behaviour subordinate performance.
• belief that business success has much to do with
  'leadership'.
• mgt devel. programmes emphasise mgr/leadership
  style.
• Can leadership skills really be developed?
• simulated field experience (outward bound)?
• assessment centre (workshop selection devel)?
• coaching mentoring
• going on a leadership course?
• meditation?
• reading a book, watching the TV?
• playing team games e.g. rugby, hockey?
• Drake's Drum?

13
Academic practitioner recipes

• a mix of traditional behavioural science
  approaches
• few analytical studies of leadership offer much
  to the practical manager (Adair)
• academic doubts. Textbooks tend to
• report 'theories' few query the validity of each
  approach
• the imply prescriptions ? industry selling
• Elixirs, recipes, 'leadership development'
  packages interpersonal skills, motivating,
  listening, participative problem solving,
  assertiveness transforming skills

14
Unitary (vs. pluralistic) frame of reference

• One set of values, beliefs, commitments
• Shared understanding commitment to objectives
• One source of leadership
• Team members - All pulling in the same direction
• Potential for harmony is assumed if leader
  communicates well
• Disagreements ? the result of misunderstanding
• Dissidents "rabble" hypothesis

Alan Fox Research Paper to Donovan Commission
1968
15
How do different 'styles' affect an organisation?

• wide ranging open to question
• difficult to research - what are the variables?
• difficult to
• separate fact from fiction
• attribute cause effect in different contexts
  organisational settings over time
• ambiguity of measures of organisational
  performance
• gap between perception of practitioners
  behavioural scientists

16
Exercise

• What figures in your life do you regard as
  leaders?
• What are the characteristics that they possess?
  List the qualities. Which ones keep recurring?
• In your view, do organisations need leaders? If
  not, what would be the consequences (good or bad)
  of an absence of leaders in organisations?

17
Leadership traits approach

• Bird 1940, Brynman 1996 identified traits from
  'the literature'. Few common to all studies
• everyday wisdom on common traits
• wide range of trait descriptors variety of
  'leaders' (heroes and villains) - difficult to
  agree on one list
• when leaders behave towards followers in
  different ways, how much is cause, how much is
  effect?
• do some 'qualities' indicate potential
  differentiate the 'effective from the
  ineffective'
• non-leaders often possess the same traits as
  leaders
• Conclusion?
• Consider followers situation that L. occurs in.

18
The leadership style approaches

• Mayo Hawthorne experiments (Roethlisberger
  Dickson, 1939)
• 'permissive', sensitive leadership behaviour ?
  more output
• Relay Assembly room - increased output influenced
  by 'permissive' management of researchers
• Bank Wiring room - links management style,
  employee attitudes and behaviour
• Kurt Lewin (1939) - adult leaders in boys' hobby
  club
• autocratic, laissez faire, democratic leader
  styles the behaviour/performance of youth
  groups
• language model linking "styles" ? subordinate
  performance
• Democratic style reflects dominant social values
• Impetus for further study - Michigan Ohio State

19
Ohio State studies (two factor theories)

• two (independent) L - dimensions
• initiating structure (task centred)
• consideration (interpersonal relationships)
• "measure" perception style preferences
• in various settings ? inventories development
  prescriptions.
• Effectiveness reflects
• task completion
• member satisfaction

Flieshman 1953 Stogdill (1948, 1956)

• Supervisors
• High task - productive but high turnover, lower
  morale
• High consideration - high morale, low
  productivity
• Over-generalised conclusions
• Ideal L high on initiation consideration.
• Participative styles preferred

20
Critique of Ohio Studies

• output measures can often be favourably affected
  in the short term by authoritarian leadership.
• The problems of social research
• Hawthorne effect
• Abstracted empiricism
• likelihood that a change in performance is
  related to more than one variable

21
Michigan Leadership Studies
Managerial Grid

• programmes for changing style org. culture
• 'proprietary' approaches to assessment training
• diagnosis treatment
• Blake - Moulton Managerial Grid (1968)
• Extended with contingency focus
• Tannenbaum (1958)
• Reddin (1970)
• Hersey Blanchard (1977)

1.9
9.9. the ideal one-best style
High
1.1
9.1.
Low
Low
High
Concern for production
22
Critique of style theories

• Universality of the style?
• weak evidence for usefulness of 'style' theories
• Style changes often assoc. with changes in org.
  structure other mgt competencies .
• Fiedler (1967) - Are participative, considerate
  styles really better than trad. authoritarian
  or directive?
• Ineffective L-training - weak transfer of
  behaviour change from directive to participative

23
Group dynamic/process approach

• Leadership determined by
• group setting not the individual or the whole
  organisation
• common functional behaviours
• a. task
• b. socio-emotional needs of group (c)
  individuals.
• failure in one affects the other two (performance
  satisfaction).
• Leader contributions?
• Structuring - integrating - calming - supporting
  - controlling
• one 'leader' may not necessarily perform all
• roles from 'trouble-shooters' to 'counsellors'
  (Belbin)
• Drake's Drum again - 'Cometh the hour, cometh the
  man'

24
Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum
Boss-centred
Follower-centred
use of authority by leader
decision making action freedom for followers
Position on continuum based on situational
factors value system, wants, confidence,
willingness.
25
Adair Action-centred leadership
Simple model useful for junior mgt
training functional situational emphasis on
task situation socio-emotional needs Aware of
group processes, people in group, nuances of
behaviour, interpersonal skills
26
Critique of Group Dynamics approach

• If leadership behaviour is situationally group
  related what happens when the situation or group
  changes?
• Does the organisation function sub-optimally?
• ignores wider organisational demands on leader
  group.
• Yet
• we comprehend how leaders may relate to followers
  situations

27
Reddin 3-D (style-contingency approach)
High
High
Low
Low
High
Low
Task
28
Situational leadership (Hersey Blanchard 1977
82)

• contingency approach
• follower maturity a critical situational variable
• two dimensions
• task style
• relationship style
• Four styles
• telling, selling, participating, delegating.
• follower maturity
• degree of achievement motivation
• willingness to take on responsibility
• education or experience

29
Problems with contingency theories?

• what causes what - in real life?
• as with style theories, difficult to understand
  why there should be a favourable view of the
  leader in some groups.
• 'permissive' leadership the consequence gt the
  cause of group effectiveness.

30
Social learning theory and leadership

• a model for continuous interaction between the
  environment (macro variables subordinates) and
  leader's behaviour, perception and cognition.
• leader subordinates/followers
• have negotiable, interactive relationship
• learn to modify or influence each other's
  behaviour by giving or holding back desired
  rewards
• Davis and Luthans, 1980
• Sims Lorenzi, 1992, The New Leadership
  Paradigm, Sage

31
Why the search for the Grail ?

• exercising effective-L is more more difficult
• economic shifts Pacific Rim and China etc.
• political change South Africa, CIS, Italy, Japan
  Europe
• big transnational firms
• less goodwill traditional deference towards
  leaders
• Many skills techniques of today's senior execs
  are being superseded. Which ones?
• Competition changing markets, products,
  technologies expectations dictate adaptability
  and innovation in strategic decision making,
  marketing, organisation - leadership

32
Transformational leadership theory

• Context? late-20thC national global pol-econ.
  change
• Contributors Downton (1973), Burns (1978), Bass
  (1985), Bennis Nanus (1985), Tichy Devanna
  (1986)
• Bass surveyed 70 execs"In your careers, who
  transformed you in Burns' terms (raised
  awareness, move up Maslow hierarchy . to
  transcend self-interest etc).
• Answer usually an organisational superior.

33
From Laissez faire to Transactional

• Laissez-faire
• not really leaders at all, avoid intervention,
  weak follow up, passivity, potential for
  confusion
• Transactional leaders
• management by exception
• passive set standards/objectives, wait for,
  react to, reluctant intervention. Status quo
• active standards/objectives, monitor, correct,
  look for error, enforce rules/procedures. Low
  initiative risk-taking
• constructive transactions, contingent rewards
• agree standards/objectives, feedback, PR rewards
• outcome performance that meets expectations.
• Simplified in One-Min. Manager (Blanchard
  Johnson 1982). Airport business books

34
Transactional leadership

• Mixed evidence - it may be desirable, even
  necessary. Contingent rewards underpin PRP - do
  they?
• Laissez-faire transactional in directive,
  consultative, participative delegative styles
• directive Mgt by Exception'These are the rules
  and this is how you've broken them'.
• participative Mgt by ExceptionLet's work
  together to identify mistakes'
• Weaknesses
• Carrot/stick rewards, emphasis on plans, targets,
  systems, controls
• management gt leadership
• fails to develop, motivate, bring to full
  potential (Bass)

35
The transformational leader (Basss four 'I's)

• promotes
• follower desire for achievement
  self-development.
• teams, esprit de corps, autonomy, synergy,
  belief, value
• Four 'I's.
• lndividualised consideration (IC)
• Intellectual stimulation (IS)
• Inspirational motivation (IM)
• ldealised influence (charisma) (II)

36
Individualised consideration Intellectual
stimulation

• IC
• identifying individuals' needs abilities, opps.
  to learn, delegating, coaching giving
  developmental feedback. Spend time with
  individuals e.g. mentoring.
• IS
• question status quo, encourage imagination,
  creativity, logical thinking intuition.
• unorthodoxy in character, symbolise innovation.
• compare 1960s UK motorcycles Swiss watch market
  to Yamaha and Seiko

37
Inspirational motivation ldealised influence

• IM
• Clear vision, problems as opportunities, language
  symbols
• I had a dream ...
• Ask not what America can do for you. Ask what
  you can do..
• Go the extra mile. Iacocca at Chrysler.
• II
• Confident in communicating a virtuous vision
• The buck stops here'. Purpose, persistence,
  trust, accomplish gt failure. Respected for
  personal ability

Leadership .. the priceless gift you earn from
those who work for you. I have to earn the right
to that gift, and continuously re-earn
(it). John Harvey-Jones (ICI)

• Gandhi, Luther King, Thatcher, Blair
• Hitler, Jim Jones

38
Bass's model
effective
passive
Active
ineffective
39
Is transformational leadership cross-cultural?

• exporting participative management or Theory Y
  from the USA to authoritarian cultures is like
  'preaching Jeffersonian democracy to managers who
  believe in the divine right of kings'.
• Haire, Ghiselli and Porter 1966
• Leadership - a universal phenomenon?
• context culture influences
• Bass presents evidence from studies in Italy,
  Sweden, Canada, New Zealand, India, Japan
  Singapore
• suggests that the model needs only fine-tuning
  across cultures ??

40
Motivated in spite of leader? Do we really need
'em?

• 1970s dissatisfaction with leadership theory
  research in explaining effect on motivation
  performance
• 'Substitutes' theory of leadership (Kerr
  Jermier 1978)
• Are there substitutes making L-behaviour
  unnecessary e.g.
• 'Professional', competent people do not need
  'leadership' to perform well to be motivated.
  Depends on
• the individuals, the work, the organisation its
  structure, feedback, intrinsic job satisfaction,
  group cohesion, weak authority or remoteness of
  the leader

41
Exam Question

• Review alternative leadership theories and
  analyse their value in terms of
• (a) guiding decisions in selecting managers to
  run modern organisations
• (b) giving pointers to individuals in developing
  skills and abilities that, in a range of
  situations, may further their career aspirations.