Pre-Columbian Archaeology of North America

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Pre-Columbian Archaeology of North America

• Weeks 6
• Regional Chronologies
• The Arctic and Sub-arctic

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Regional Divisions

• In the study of aboriginal peoples in North
  America, both ethnographic and archaeological,
  the continent is generally divided into a number
  of regions
• These will for the basis for our discussions of
  regional chronologies
• The focus will here will be on the Holocene

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Regional Characteristics (1)

• Arctic
• Stretching from western Alaska across the entire
  continent to Greenland
• Area north of the tree line
• Classic tundra conditions during the Holocene.
• Cold, desert-like conditions.
• Growing season ranges from 50 to 60 days.
• Average winter temperature is -34 C
• Average summer temperature is 3-12 C
• Yearly precipitation, including melting snow, is
  1525 cm
• Flora
• Low shrubs, sedges (Cyperaceae), reindeer moss
  (Cladonia rangifera), liverworts (Hepaticae),
  and grasses
• 400 varieties of flowers
• crustose and foliose lichen

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Vegetational Zones of North America
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Tundra (Alaska National Wildlife Refuge)
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Coastal tundra
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Arctic Fauna Terrestrial Mammals

• Terrestrial herbivores
• Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) sob
• Musk oxen (Ovibus moschatus) pižmon
• Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus) zajíc polární
• Lemming (Synaptomys spp.) lumík
• Terrestrial carnivores
• Wolf (Canis lupus)
• Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) liška polární

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Arctic Fauna Marine Mammals (1)

• Seals (true/eared)
• Harp seal (Phoca groenlandicus) tulen gronský
• Adult males grow to about 1.7 m and 130 kg
  females are smaller
• Ringed seal (Phoca hispida) tulen kroužkovaný
• Adult ringed seals are 99-157 cm in length and
  weigh 45-107 kg
• Ribbon seal (Phoca fasciata) tulen pruhovaný
• Adult ribbon seals average 155-165 cm in length
  and 70-80 kg in weight
• Bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) tulen vousatý
• Adult seals are 2.1-2.5 m in length, and weigh
  about 200-360 kg
• Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) mrož
• Atlantic walrus males average 3.0 m in length and
  weigh approximately 800-900 kg.  Pacific walrus
  males are somewhat larger, averaging 3.2 m and
  approximately 1200 kg.  Females are generally
  smaller
• Northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) lachtan
  medvedí
• Adult male 2 m, 135-270 kg. Average adult female
  1.3 m, 30-45 kg

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Arctic Fauna Marine Mammals (2)

• Whales (toothed/baleen ozubení/kosticovici)
• Beluga (Didelphinapterus leucas) beluha
• Adults measure 3-4.6 m and weigh 1350-1500 kg
• Narwhal (Monodon monoceros) narval
• Adults 4-4.9 m, 900-1600 kg, tooth 2-3 m in
  length
• Gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) plejtvákovec
  šedý
• Adults are 13.8-15 m long and weigh about 33,000
  kg
• Northern right whale (Eubalaena glacialis)
  velryba biskajská
• Adults are 15-15.2 m long and weigh about 54,000
  kg
• Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) velryba
  gronská
• Adults are 15-18.5 m long and weigh 72-91,000 kg
• Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) medved lední
• Male polar bears grow two to three times the size
  of female polar bears
• Males weigh about 350 to more than 650 kg and
  are about 2.5-3 m long
• Females about 150 to 250 kg and are about 2 to
  2.5 m

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Physical Anthropology

• Modern groups in the Arctic form a group distinct
  from the rest of the Americas aboriginal
  inhabitants
• This can be seen in a number of physiological and
  linguistic areas
• Eskimo-Aleut languages are related to languages
  spoken in eastern Siberia and not to other
  languages of North America
• Blood type distribution (see table)
• Y-chromosome and mtDNA differences
• 32 Y-chromosome haplotypes
• Appears to indicate relationship (Haplotype 31)
  with groups in central Siberia

Group Type O Type A Type B Type AB
Eskimo (Alaska) 38 44 13 15
Indians (USA) 79 16 4 1
Navajo 73 27 0 0
Blackfoot 17 82 0 1
Czech 30 44 18 9
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Genetic distance between human populations based
on research by Cavalii-Sforza
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• Figure 4. Distribution of haplogroup frequencies
  (pie charts) among Amerindian populations does
  not correspond in any simple way to
  language-group affiliations, suggesting that a
  tripartite model of migration to the New World
  (based on three hypothesized language groups) may
  be too simple. However, virtually all of the
  northern Na-Dene mtDNAs belong to haplogroup A,
  whereas those of the southern Na-Dene also
  include some from haplogroups B, C and D,
  indicating that the southern populations have
  mixed with the neighboring Amerindian populations
  since their arrival in the American Southwest
  some 500-to-1, 000 years ago. Certain other
  trends are also evident Haplogroup A declines in
  frequency from north to south, whereas
  haplogroups C and D increase in frequency. By
  contrast, there is no obvious clinal distribution
  for haplogroup B (aside from its absence in
  northern North America). Whether these
  distributions reflect the original pattern of
  settlement in the Americas or subsequent genetic
  differentiation is not entirely clear.
• From Mitochondrial DNA and the Peopling of the
  New World by Theodore G. Schurr. In American
  Scientist, 20008(3)

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Arctic (1)

• Arctic Small Tool tradition
• 4200 2800 BP
• First identified in 1964 at Cape Denbigh, Seward
  Peninsula (Alaska)
• Spread from eastern Siberia where microblade
  technology has a long tradition.
• Considered to be ancestral to modern Inuit/Eskimo
  peoples
• First occupation of northernmost regions,
  including Greenland
• Finely made microblades, spalled burins, small
  side and end scrapers, and side and end blades
• Projectile points are triangular or pointed at
  both ends.
• Structures
• West small camps and larger base camps with
  semi-subterranean, sod roofed houses
• East Oval and circular dwellings are indicated
  by rings of boulders probably were used to hold
  down the edges of a tent. Charcoal and burnt bone
  found in the interior of the tent ring indicates
  that the shelter was heated with a central fire.
  As well circular soapstone dishes may have been
  used as lamps or heating vessels.
• Diverse economic activities including hunting
  (caribou (R. tarandus) and sea mammals), fishing

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Arctic (2)

• Coastal regions of southeastern Alaska were
  distinct in having strongly maritime traditions
• Importance of slate tools, evidence of greater
  cultural complexity (mortuary rituals)
• On the Aleutian Islands, there is the Aleutian
  Tradition which continues up to the modern era
  (c. 1800 AD)
• A core and flake tradition, with bifacial
  projectile points and knives, adzes and ulu
  blades, chisels, and awls (etc.), that remained
  fairly stable throughout the life of the
  tradition. There are also elaborate bone harpoon
  heads, and bone and ivory ornaments, whose
  shifting styles help date sites.

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Knives

• Left Ulu (womans knife) made of ground slate in
  a bone handle
• Right Mans knife made from ivory

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Arctic (3)

• Norton Tradition
• Evolved out of Arctic Small Tool tradition
• 3000 1200 BP
• Restricted to the western Arctic (Alaska)
• Stone tool assemblage similar to ASTt
• An Arctic Small Tool tradition tool base except
  microblades and the burin technology is gone
  first pottery vessels (fiber-tempered, stamped
  pottery from Asia) and stone lamps for burning
  oil toggling harpoons and polished slate
  implements.
• Structures/Residence Pattern
• First definitive shift toward establishing
  permanent settlements on the seacoast
  substantial year-round semi-subterranean houses
  dense long-term occupation (hundreds of houses
  occur at some sites)
• Elaborate ivory carvings
• Perhaps related to Siberian styles
• Major changes in subsistence strategies
• A more maritime focus, year round sea mammal
  hunting both in open water and through winter
  ice, intensive fishing caribou and small mammal
  hunting remain important in early part of this
  period.

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Arctic (4)

• Dorset Tradition
• Found in eastern Arctic
• 1800 900 BP
• Also develops out of ASTt
• Different subsistence strategy
• The winter/spring season focused on sea mammal
  hunting (whales, seals, walrus) in the summer
  and fall, caribou were hunted with spears and
  fish (salmon, char) captured with fish harpoons
  and compound leisters in rivers.
• Rectangular, semi-subterranean winter houses,
  winter snow houses (igloos), and round summer
  tends were built.
• Tools include snow knives, blubber lamps, a
  ground slate industry, distinctive harpoon head
  forms, sealing projectile points.
• Elaborate and highly evolved artistic tradition
  that includes carved wood, bone, and ivory
  depictions of humans, spirit monsters, and
  animals objects are of a magico-religious
  nature supernatural universe.
• Lacks many elements found in the Norton and later
  traditions, including harpoon floats, the maupok
  method of hunting seals at breathing holes, dog
  sleds, cold-trap entrances for houses, bow and
  arrows, throwing boards (they used simple lances
  and harpoons).
• Disappears

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Arctic (5)

• Thule Tradition
• Begins c. 1200 BP in the Bering Straights region
• Expands eastward, replacing the Dorset Tradition
  by c. 900 BP in all areas (including Greenland)
• This is the modern Inuit/Eskimo culture
• By c. AD 1000, all the major items of historic
  Eskimo culture existed throughout the Alaskan
  coast, including fully equipped kayaks, umiaks,
  dog sleds, harpoon line floats, sunken houses
  with deep entrances, heavy use of polished slate
  tools, pottery (thick and gravel tempered), and a
  wide variety of specialized tools and weapons
  (e.g., components for specialized arrows, darts,
  and spears for fish, birds, and different size
  sea mammals toggling and non-toggling harpoons
  dart heads for land mammals snow goggles). An
  extensive organic inventory survives in the
  archaeological record. These items revolutionized
  coastal life throughout the Arctic. Some appear
  in the archaeological for the first time (kayaks,
  umiaks, dog sleds, efficient toggling harpoons,
  harpoon line floats, harpoon mounted ice picks).
  Objects of iron (demonstrating contact with
  Siberian peoples.

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Arctic (6)

• Thule was a highly specialized culture that
  emphasized whale hunting where possible and
  winter ice hunting. Large villages at favorable
  whaling locations organized economically and
  ceremonially into whaling crews and whaleboat
  owning entrepreneurs as in the historic period.
• Their art is a high point of all Eskimo art
  traditions. Elaborate carved ivory objects.
  Changes through time in this tradition seen
  mainly in differences in harpoon styles and art
  motifs.
• Thule Expansion Eastward. After c. AD 900, Thule
  traits and people move southward to the Pacific
  coast, into the Alaskan interior (e.g., Arctic
  Woodland culture), and across northern Canada to
  Greenland. Probably related to a warm weather
  cycle (Medieval Warm Period) that shifted pack
  ice northward and changed path of sea-mammal
  migrations. Retreated after AD 1300 in cold
  period.
• In eastern regions pottery replaced by soapstone
  vessels
• Hunters of seals, walrus, and large whales. Used
  seal-skin covered kayak and more substantial
  umiak for hunting and rapid transportation in
  summer dog sleds in winter. Used bow and arrow
  for caribou and musk ox. Harpoons often propelled
  by throwing board.
• Three house types.
• Snow house, tent (animal skin), sod house
  (wood/bone and stone frame covered in earth)

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Arctic Small Tool Tradition IllustrationsA
MapB A complete flaked stone end-blade from the
Arctic Small Tool traditionC A fragment of a
flaked stone end-blade (i.e, the sharp blade that
would be mounted at the tip of a bone, antler or
ivory harpoon or spear)D This Arctic Small Tool
tradition tent ring is referred to as a
"mid-passage" house. The outer ring of rocks
would have weighed down the edges of a tent. The
"mid-passage" is formed by the parallel lines of
rocks dividing the interior of the house at the
center of the mid-passage there is a small hearth
or fireplace in which willow twigs or driftwood
would have been burned.
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Norton Tradition IllustrationsA Ivory figurine,
c. 1900 BP. Markings on the smaller face
demonstrate tattooingB Difference between a
non-toggling and toggling harpoon, which toggles
beneath the skin and blubber where it cannot be
broken off by ice and holds heavier prey like
whales and walrus.C Stone lamps
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Dorset Tradition IllustrationsA MapB Top left
to right flaked stone end-blade to fit in the
tip of a harpoon head 3 harpoon heads a
so-called "spatula" carving bottom a harpoon
foreshaft and harpoon head.C Ivory doll, 7 cm
tall
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Umiak
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Inuit kayak (max. length 5 m)
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Kayak loaded with sealskin float, weapons, etc.
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Sled (toy)
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House Types
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Subterranean Thule HouseDevon Island, Canadian
Arctic
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Sub-arctic

• Sub-arctic
• Runs across the whole of the continent, from
  interior Alaska to Labrador peninsula and
  Newfoundland
• Taiga (continuous coniferous forest)
• The taiga is a moist sub-arctic forest that
  begins where the tundra ends.
• Winters are long, dark and cold with lots of snow
  (min. - 60C)
• Summers are warm and short when the daylight can
  be up to 20 hours long (max. 40C).
• Annual precipitation between 300-1000 mm
• Major type of vegetation is coniferous
  evergreens.
• Fir (Abiesi), spruce (Picea), birch (Betula),
  juniper (Juniperus), tamarack (Larix)
• Non-coniferous trees and plants
• Alder (Alnus), aspen (Populus), willow
• Lichens, mosses, sedges, grasses, bushes, berries

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Sub-arctic Fauna (1)

• Herbivores
• Caribou
• Moose (Alces alces) los
• Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) zajíc menivý
• Beaver (Castor canidensis) bobr kanadský
• Lemming
• Vole (Microtus spp.) hraboš
• American red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus)
  cikarí cervený (syn. veverice cervená)

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Sub-arctic Fauna (2)

• Carnivores
• Bears
• Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis)
• American black bear (Ursus americanus) baribal
• Canines
• Wolf
• Coyote (Canis latrans)
• Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
• Felines
• Lynx (Lynx canadensis)
• Mustelids
• Wolverine (Gulo gulo) rosomák
• Otter, marten, mink, weasle

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Sub-Arctic

• Northern Archaic
• 6500 2500 BP
• Research inhibited by a general lack of
  well-stratified sites, impact of climate, size of
  region
• Particularly in western half of region
• Northern variant of generalized Archaic found
  throughout North America
• Technologically related to ASTt
• Microblades, burins
• Depended on caribou and fishing in rivers and
  streams for their livelihood, staying inland and
  near the trees most of the time.
• Most probably represents ancestral Indian
  populations as opposed to paleo-Eskimo.
• Throughout this region Arctic and Sub-Arctic
  traditions expanded and retracted depending on
  variations in the climate
• Archaic hunters of ultimate eastern North
  American origin, possessing notched projectile
  points, spread northward from the Plains with the
  expanding boreal forest to displace indigenous
  populations whose tool kits were characterized by
  microblades (ASTt)
• Known as Shield Cultures in east.

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Shield Cultures (1)

• Both Late Eastern Shield and Late Western Shield
  cultures developed out of the Middle Shield
  culture (6,000 to 2,500 BP)
• 2500 BP to European contact (17th to 19th
  centuries)
• The basis for distinguishing between these two
  closely related cultures is largely technological
  as their settlement patterns and subsistence
  practices were very similar, if not identical, in
  most instances.
• Late Eastern Shield culture retained the older
  stone working traditions of their predecessors
  whereas Late Western Shield culture continued a
  late Middle Shield culture development in the
  west that involved abandoning the use of massive
  siliceous deposits, such as quartzite and
  rhyolite, with their resulting large bifacial and
  unifacial tools, in favour of Hudson Bay Lowlands
  nodular cherts with their comparatively
  diminutive tool products.
• While both cultures made extensive use of local
  veins of quartz as expedient cutting and scraping
  chunks and flakes, the practice appears to have
  been far more common in the east. Late Eastern
  Shield culture also rejected pottery vessels as
  an important item in their tool kit unlike their
  western kinsmen.

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Shield Cultures (2)

• In fact, the limited pottery from Late Eastern
  Shield sites may simply represent the products of
  Late Western Shield culture and Late Great
  Lakes-St. Lawrence culture women moving from
  their homelands in the west and south to join the
  bands of their husbands to the north and east.
  Occurrences of pottery becomes progressively
  sparse as one advances eastward and northward and
  thus further away from the homelands of the
  hypothesized cultures within which it represented
  a significant element of technology.
• This progressively fading pattern of pottery
  vessel distribution to the east maintains itself
  into Period V (A.D. 500 to European contact)
  where the East Cree, Montagnais (Naskapi), and
  Attikamek of Late Eastern Shield culture
  territory basically rejected pottery
  manufacturing unlike their western and southern
  kinsmen the West Main Cree, Algonquin, Southern
  and Northern Ojibwa, Western Woods Cree, and the
  Late Winnipeg Saulteaux. What pottery does occur
  is clearly related to western styles and was
  likely a product of women from western bands
  joining their husbands in the eastern bands.
• Subsistence and settlement patterns remain
  unchanged from the preceding period and, for that
  matter, were to remain unchanged up to the time
  of European contact.
• Sites such as the Chicoutimi site at the juncture
  of the Saugenay and Chicoutimi rivers contained
  occupational debris spanning more than 3,000
  years and terminated with a historical documented
  Montagnais occupation. Unfortunately the cultural
  deposits at this site were hopelessly intermixed.
  Like other large sites, the Chicoutimi site was a
  favourable location where a band or, more likely,
  a number of bands gathered on a seasonal basis.

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Western/Northwestern Sub-Arctic

• 2500 BP to European Contact (nineteenth century)
• Interior culture must be viewed in relationship
  to its geographical setting. The region is
  physiographically dominated by the northwest
  trending Cordillera consisting of coastal and
  interior mountain ranges with intervening smaller
  mountain ranges and plateaus.
• Major drainages are the Yukon and the Mackenzie,
  two of the largest river systems in the world.
• Within this complex mosaic of landforms, small
  hunting bands relied upon fish and caribou as
  well as regionally and seasonally available small
  game, waterfowl, moose, and berries.
• To survive in a region with widely dispersed food
  resources and peak periods of abundance and
  scarcity has always demanded a broadly based and
  flexible foraging pattern.

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Distribution of Sub-Arctic CulturesMap III -
Cultural Distributions, 4,000 to 1,000 B.C.A
Middle Maritime B Middle Great Lakes-St.
Lawrence C Middle Shield D Middle Plains E
Middle Plateau F Early West Coast G Middle
Northwest Interior H Early Palaeo-Eskimo
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Interior projectile points (Yukon) wide range of
sizes, shapes, styles