Human Body Systems

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Human Body Systems

• http//resources.schoolscience.co.uk/abpi/history/
  timeline.html

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• Primitive brain surgery
• One form of primitive surgery seems quite
  shocking. Ancient skulls have been found with a
  hole bored into them. This appears to have been a
  deliberate operation and carried out whilst the
  person was still alive. We can only speculate as
  to the reason for this operation, called
  trepanning, but it may have been to allow the
  evil spirits to leave a sick person. Skulls show
  that the wounds healed and bone grew back so
  amazingly it appears that patients often survived
  this radical brain surgery.

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• Medical writings
• The Egyptians had doctors who specialized in
  treating particular parts of the body as well as
  researching the properties of herbal medicines.
  Their detailed records of the symptoms and
  treatments of illnesses formed some of the first
  medical text books.
• Egyptologists have found documents, written on a
  type of paper called papyrus, that describe
  medical techniques similar to those used today.
  The Egyptians used compression on a wound to stop
  bleeding and had specialists in obstetrics and
  gynecology who were the forerunners of modern
  midwives.
• As today, the Egyptians suffered from the common
  cold. Here is a remedy taken from an ancient
  papyrus
• To make them feel better, the patient should be
  given the milk of a mother who has given birth to
  a boy. The following spell was to be made to get
  rid of the coldMay you flow out, catarrh, son
  of catarrh, who breaks the bones, who destroys
  the skull, who hacks in the marrow, who causes
  the seven openings in the head to ache.Ebers
  Papyrus

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• HippocratesPossibly the most famous name in
  medicine belongs to the Greek philosopher
  Hippocrates. He is seen as the father of modern
  medicine and gives his name to the Hippocratic
  oath that doctors take.At this time, most people
  believed that diseases were sent as a punishment
  from the gods. Treatments were aimed at pleasing
  the gods so that the disease would be cured.
  Hippocrates went against this conventional
  thinking and looked on the body as having a
  balance between four humors blood, phlegm, black
  bile, and yellow bile. If a person was ill, it
  meant that there was an imbalance in their humors
  and so they would take a treatment to return the
  balance back to normal. This often included
  bleeding or induced vomiting. This radical
  approach took medicine out of the spiritual world
  and the four humors formed the basis of medical
  treatments well into medieval times
• Blood Blood gave a person a lively personality
  and lots of energy. They would enjoy life and the
  arts.
• Phlegm Phlegm made a person feel lethargic or
  have a dull personality.
• Black bile Black bile caused depression and
  sadness.
• Yellow bile Yellow bile influenced a person's
  temperament. It caused anger and a fiery temper.

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• Hygiene
• The Romans realized that there was a link between
  dirt and disease. To improve public health, they
  built aqueducts to supply clean drinking water
  and sewers to remove wastes safely. Improved
  personal hygiene helped to reduce disease and
  Roman baths were places to socialise as well as
  stay clean.

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• God and medicine
• Medicine in the middle ages was dominated by
  religion. Sickness was believed to be a
  punishment from God for sins committed and the
  only way to cure someone was to pray for their
  forgiveness. Doctors in the middle ages were
  usually priests or other religious scholars.
  Hospitals often sprang up in monasteries and
  other religious establishments. The patients were
  given food and comforted by religious nursing
  staff but little else was done to cure their
  illness.

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• Plague
• The biggest challenge to medieval medicine came
  in the form of the Black death, or Bubonic
  Plague. In 1347, an outbreak of bubonic plague
  broke out in Istanbul (modern day Turkey).
  Traders soon carried the disease throughout
  Europe and records show that in some areas it
  killed up to 90 of the population. That is the
  equivalent of 49 million people in the UK today.
• We now know that bubonic plague is a form of
  highly contagious and fatal pneumonia. During the
  middle ages, the only treatments were
  superstitious remedies, prayer, herbal medicines
  and recipes for clearing the air of miasma or
  poison. The plague was considered to be a
  punishment from God and so public health was not
  considered to be important. There was never any
  attempt to control the many rats that infested
  villages and towns and carried the disease. This
  was one of the main reasons that that the plague
  was so devastating.

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• Spreading the word
• One of the most important medical books of its
  time was written by the physician Ali al-Husayn
  Abd Allah Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna). His
  massive manuscript, called the Laws of Medicine,
  was completed around 1030 AD and translated into
  Latin in the 12th Century. This encyclopaedia of
  medicine contained five books detailing the
  formulation of medicines, diagnosis of disorders,
  general medicine and detailed therapies. It
  continued to be a great influence in the
  development of medicine in medieval Europe for
  hundreds of years.

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• Hospitals and healthcare
• The majority of people were too poor to be
  treated by trained doctors. Major cities had
  hospitals. For example, the Santa Maria Nuova in
  Florence, treated wealthy patients. These
  hospitals were amongst the first medical schools
  in Europe to start teaching medicine. Surgery
  improved and techniques such as tying wounds to
  stop bleeding began to be used. Previously,
  bleeding was stopped by cauterizing, or burning,
  the wound with red hot metal.
• Surgical instruments remained basic. A surgeon
  would perform operations with the most basic set
  of instruments a drill, a saw, forceps and
  pliers for removing teeth. If a trained surgeon
  was not available, it was usually the local
  barber who performed operations and removed teeth.

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• The importance of hygiene
• Perhaps the most famous nurse ever, Florence
  Nightingale, worked in a military hospital during
  the Crimean war. Conditions were poor and 80 of
  soldiers died from infections they caught in the
  hospital rather than their original wounds.
  Florence Nightingale improved standards of
  hygiene and sanitation which dramatically reduced
  the infections in her hospital. When she returned
  from the war, Florence Nightingale embarked on a
  campaign to modernise and improve hospitals. She
  set the foundations of hospital design and
  nursing practice that are still seen today.

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• Antiseptics
• Joseph Lister realized that infections caught
  during an operation often lead to death by
  septicaemia. He pioneered the use of carbolic
  acid as the first antiseptic to clean wounds and
  surgical instruments. Operations were performed
  with a fine spray of carbolic acid passed over
  the patient to kill any microbes in the air. In
  one Newcastle hospital, use of Lister's
  antiseptic technique reduced deaths from
  infection from nearly 60 down to just 4.

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• Observation and vaccination
• Jenner was a doctor who worked in Gloucestershire
  and the great advance he made was to notice that
  individuals who had contracted cowpox (the cow's
  equivalent of smallpox) rarely caught the deadly
  human version. In 1796 he deliberately infected
  an eight year old boy called James Phipps with
  the pus from a cowpox sore. The boy became ill
  with cowpox but recovered. He then infected him
  with the normally deadly smallpox. As Jenner had
  predicted the earlier infection with the cowpox
  actually protected the boy who never caught
  smallpox. The practice of modern vaccination was
  born.

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• The start of medical imaging
• The glow appeared to be caused by some unknown
  rays coming from the Crooke's tube. He tried to
  block these rays with cardboard but found that
  they passed straight through it. Amazingly, if he
  put his hand between the tube and the screen, he
  could see an image of the bones in his hand. He
  named this new radiation X-rays and immediately
  realised how important his discovery would be to
  the world of medicine.

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Human Digestive System p. 160-167

• Fun facts
• Your intestines are 3.5-4 times the length of
  your body.
• Food lasts 3 hours in your stomach and 3 hours in
  your small intestine
• Show The Man with No Stomach
• Where does digestion occur?
• Where does digestion end?
• What is the digestive tract?
• Why digest?
• Physical digestion
• Chemical digestion
• Video Body Atlas The Food Machine

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Digestion

• Salivary glands bolus, salivary amylase
• Stomach peristalsis
• upper cardiac sphincter (ring of muscle)
• lower pyloric sphincter
• gastric juice (acid)
• Liver
• Pancreas

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Respiratory System Pg. 224-231

• http//msjensen.cehd.umn.edu/1135/Links/Animations
  /Flash/0034-swf_alveolar_press.swf
• Handout Text Work
• Video Body Atlas Breath of Life

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Circulatory System

• Up until only about 350 years ago, people
  believed blood in the body flowed back and forth
  like ocean tides. The ancient Greeks were the
  first to put forth this theory. They believed
  blood moved away from the heart, then ebbed back
  to it carrying impurities in the same vessels.
  This theory remained unchallenged for 1,400
  years.
• In 1628, English physician William Harvey
  (15781657) published a new concept of blood
  circulation. He maintained that there was a
  constant flow of blood through the arteries that
  returned to the heart through the veins. This
  formed a continuing circular flow of blood
  through the body.
• In an average lifetime, the heart beats more than
  two and a half billion times, without ever
  pausing to rest. Like a pumping machine, the
  heart provides the power needed for life.

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• Red blood cells are red only because they contain
  an iron-protein chemical called hemoglobin to
  bond with oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen
  molecules attach to the hemoglobin. As the blood
  passes through the body's tissue, the hemoglobin
  releases the oxygen to the cells.
• The empty hemoglobin molecules then bond with
  the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases,
  transporting it away.

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• The average life cycle of a red blood cell is 120
  days.
• Your bone marrow are continually producing new
  blood cells.

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Platelets
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• When platelets in the circulation encounter a
  damaged blood vessel, they attach to the damaged
  lining and to each other, and release coagulation
  factors.
• In a complex series of reactions fibrinogen is
  converted into fibrin, an insoluble protein that
  forms an intricate network of tiny threads called
  fibrils.

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Human Body Circulation

• Your heart is about the same size as your fist.
• An average adult body contains about 4.5 L of
  blood.
• All the blood vessels in the body joined end to
  end would stretch 100,000 km or two and a half
  times around the earth.
• The heart circulates the body's blood supply
  about 1,000 times each day.

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Video clips

• http//www.smm.org/heart/heart/top.html
• http//library.thinkquest.org/C0115080/?ccirc_sys
  

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Activity-Finding own heartbeat
Range of Heart Rates per Minute and Average Heart
Rate for Various Ages
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The Sound of a Heartbeat

• http//www.med.ucla.edu/wilkes/Rubintro.htm

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Text Work

• Use your text book to identify
• 4 chambers (2 atriums, 2 ventricles)
• Pulmonary arteries and veins
• Aorta
• Flow of oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood
• Identify the different types of valves in the
  heart

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Activity

• Handout How much blood does your heart pump in a
  minute?
• Video The Body Atlas The Human Pump

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The Importance of the Liver

• Detoxification removal of harmful substances
  such as bacteria, drugs and hormones from the
  blood.

• Overloading the liver may lead to cirrhosis in
  which the liver becomes overgrown with excess
  tissue and cuts the blood flow which prevents its
  function.

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• Excretion of Bile aid in digestion and
  absorption of fats.
• Formation of Urea when proteins are broken down
  to AA, excess AA cant be stored and so are
  converted to ammonia and to urea which is removed
  from the blood in the kidneys

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• 4. Stores excess sugar converts sugar to
  glycogen in the liver.

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The Endocrine System
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Handout

• Ductless glands and their secretions

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Pancreas and Diabetes

• 2 hormones produced in the pancreas are
• Insulin
• Glucagon
• Insulin acts to decrease blood glucose and
  glucagon acts to increase it.
• As blood sugar levels rise, insulin is secreted
  which increases the uptake of sugar from the
  blood into muscle cells and stimulates protein
  synthesis, both which reduce blood sugar levels

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• When blood sugar levels fall below normal, other
  pancreatic cells produce glucagon which acts upon
  the liver to convert glucogen to glucose
• Blood sugar levels are maintained by homeostatic
  activities.

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FYI

• Type 1 Diabetes Type 1 diabetes, formerly
  called juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent
  diabetes, is usually first diagnosed in children,
  teenagers, or young adults. In this form of
  diabetes, the beta cells of the pancreas no
  longer make insulin because the bodys immune
  system has attacked and destroyed them. Treatment
  for type 1 diabetes includes taking insulin shots
  or using an insulin pump, making wise food
  choices, exercising regularly, taking aspirin
  daily (for some), and controlling blood pressure
  and cholesterol.Type 2 DiabetesType 2
  diabetes, formerly called adult-onset or
  noninsulin-dependent diabetes, is the most common
  form of diabetes. People can develop type 2
  diabetes at any age, even during childhood. This
  form of diabetes usually begins with insulin
  resistance, a condition in which fat, muscle, and
  liver cells do not use insulin properly. At
  first, the pancreas keeps up with the added
  demand by producing more insulin. In time,
  however, it loses the ability to secrete enough
  insulin in response to meals. Being overweight
  and inactive increases the chances of developing
  type 2 diabetes. Treatment includes taking
  diabetes medicines, making wise food choices,
  exercising regularly, taking aspirin daily (for
  some), and controlling blood pressure and
  cholesterol.Gestational DiabetesSome women
  develop gestational diabetes late in pregnancy.
  Although this form of diabetes usually goes away
  after the baby is born, a woman who has had
  gestational diabetes is more likely to develop
  type 2 diabetes later in life. Gestational
  diabetes is caused by the hormones of pregnancy
  or a shortage of insulin.

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Urinary System

• Humans release urea, amphibians excrete ammonia
  and reptiles and birds excrete uric acid.
• The major structures include
• Kidneys for i. remove waste from cellular
  respiration and ii. regulate concentration of
  substances in the body (salts, minerals, water)
• Ureter tube that transports urine from the
  kidney to the bladder
• Urinary bladder stores urine
• Urethra tube that transports urine out of the
  body.

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• The Nephron
• In the kidney there are over 1 million
  specialized cells called nephrons that filter
  wastes from the blood.
• Filtration water, glucose, urea, AA and salts
  follow the concentration gradient from the blood
  to the nephrons. Proteins are generally too
  large to pass in the nephron.
• Reabsorption The nephron will return important
  substances (water, glucose, AA and salts) to the
  blood
• Water is reabsorbed by osmosis
• Glucose, AA and salts are returned by active
  transport

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Text

• Page 241-245
• Kidney
• Medulla, cortex
• Renal arteries/veins
• Dialysis
• Kidney stones
• Nephron
• Glomerulus
• Bowmans capsule

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Immune System

• Handout

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Nervous System

• Handout The nervous system
• Handout A motor neuron

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Reproductive System

• Asexual (Vegetative) Reproduction
• A form of duplication using only mitosis
• Produces only genetically identical offspring
• Offspring are called clones
• Rapid and effective for organism
• Little chance of introducing diversity

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• Sexual Reproduction
• Formation of new individual by 2 haploid cells
  (gametes)

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Advantages/Disadvantages
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The Parts

• Page 458-459 Male/Female

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Page 431
Q. acrosome R Head (nucleus acrosome) S
Mitochondria T - Flagellum
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Menstrual Cycle (page 460)
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The Embryo (page 464)
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Menstrual Cycle Diagram
A.
D.
E.
B.
I. -
C.
F. - - - -
G.
J. -
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Menstrual Cycle Diagram
A. Brain (Pituitary)
D. FSH
E. LH
B. High Levels of estrogen decrease FSH
I. Progesterone - stops development of new
follicle
C. Ovary
F. Follicle - develop -release egg
-corpus luteum - estrogen
G. secretes
J. Uterus - thickens
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