The Industrial Revolution

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The Industrial Revolution

• The Rostow Model
• Reflections on the roles of science

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But first additional comments on the definitions
of science

• Last time I talked about the political or
  rhetorical functions served by several different
  definitions of science ---this does not mean that
  I think that most people who accept those
  definitions are aware of those functions or the
  circumstances that gave rise to them.
• A good example of how historians can help in
  understanding aspects of what we believe but are
  not conscious about.

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Definitions of science -- continued

• Definitions not arbitrary in 2 senses
• 1. As historians we want to know how those
  engaged in knowledge producing activities in the
  past thought that they were doing i.e. preamble
  of charter of Royal society of London says The
  business of the Royal Society is to improve the
  knowledge of natural things, and all useful arts,
  Manufactures, Mechanic practices, Engynes, and
  Inventions by experiment. So some definitions
  may be more reflective of past experiences than
  others.
• 2. Important to recognize what linguistic
  community subscribes to what definitions why.

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Objectivity, value neutrality, and the logical
positivist normative definition of science.

• normative vs descriptive understandings of
  science logical positivism its descendents vs
  Thomas Kuhns Structure of Scientific Revolutions
  (1962) and its descendents.
• German Science the Vienna Circle how would
  science have to be done to make its knowledge
  claims independent of the context in which they
  were producedi.e. to make them universally valid
  and to ensure the progressive nature of science.
  build the wall brick by brick notion.
• Has tremendous appeal for scientists they have a
  uniquely progressive approach to the world use
  Sarton.

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The Kuhnian revolution in history of science

• Kuhns problem science is progressive but
  revolutions frequently force scientists to reject
  older knowledge claims i.e Copernican rev,
  rejection of phlogiston chemistry, etc.
• How can this happen Kuhns emphasis on
  Paradigms, normal science, anomalies, the
  incommensurability of competing paradigms.
• Emphasizes both the way that authority is
  exercised in science, and
• The ultimately social processes which lead to the
  domination of new paradigms.

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Back now to the Industrial Revolution

• My views come primarily from 3 sources
• 1. David Landes, The Unbound Prometeus
  Technological Change and Industrial Development
  in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (1970)
  Still widely held to be the best historical
  account of European industrialization.
• 2. W. W. Rostow The Stages of Economic Growth A
  Non-Communist Manifesto (1961) has critics but
  still often used as 1st approximation by
  modernization theorists
• 4. A.E. Musson Eric Robinson, Science and
  Technology in the Industrial Revolution (1969).

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Rostows Model -1
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Rostow -2 take-off dates
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Demographic considerations

• Industrialization depends, among other things on
  the growth of a labor force not engaged in
  primary food production (in pre-industrial
  societies typically 75-95 of labor force is food
  producing in advanced industrial societies i.e.
  U.S. today 3.
• Green revolution of early 18th c in England
  allows for dramatic sustained population growth
  with little change in agricultural labor force.

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Demographic trends in England and Wales 1000 --
1800
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Other considerations related toagriculture

• Green revolution produces capital accumulation
  for investment.
• i.e. Coke of Upham raises annual income from his
  farm from 2,000 to 20,000 from 1750-1790 much
  of increase he invests.
• More typically, Phyllis Deane reports average
  farmers income 8 in 1700, 15 in 1750, 22 in
  1790, with constant or lowered expenses.
  Increased disposable income creates a market for
  goods but
• Depresses workers wages as unemployment soars.

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Typical English skilled workers wages (there
are important regional differences)
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Science Green Revolution

• Green revolution produces conditions to prepare
  for take off was there a connection to
  science?
• Certainly technological innovations are
  important.
• Scientific attitudes and practices more important
  than conceptual content emphasis on experiments
  with breeding, new crops, new fertilizers
  rotation systems, new plows, Tulls seed drill.
• Institutionalized in organizations like The
  Honourable the Society for Improvers of
  Agriculture (1723).

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Take-off

• Growth of commerce stimulated both by increase in
  ag. productivity and by exploitation of colonies
  rapid increase in persons Defoe called the
  middling sort i.e. middle class with some cash
  and aspirations. (Landes -48)
• Technological innovations in transportation
  (initially canals), Later in RRs
• Social overhead capital large capital/low but
  steady return

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Canal Building

• Key role of projectors, we now call
  entrepreneurs
• i.e Duke of Bridgewater, FRS, enthusiast for
  improving projects hires James Brindley to build
  canal from coal mine on his property to
  Manchester (1759) price of coal in Manchester
  drops 90
• Grand trunk canal begun 1766 investors include
  Erasmus Darwin, Josiah Wedgewood, Matthew
  Boulton, James Watt all members of the Lunar
  Society of Birmingham

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Take-off -- 2

• Technological innovations in textiles allows
  production of cheap cotton cloth
• Most first generation mechanical improvements
  Kays flying shuttle(1733), Hargreves Spinning
  Jenny (1770), Arkwrights water frame (1769) and
  Carding engine (1775) done by mechanics
• But some by persons with demonstrated
  mathematical and scientific training
• Crompton, inventor of the mule for spinning up
  to 350 spindles at a time educated by
  mathematician Wm Barlow
• Edmund Cartwright inventor of power loom an
  Oxford educated clergyman also trained in
  medicine interested in agricultural improvements
  mechanicsdesigned new loom then hired a
  carpenter and smith to construct it

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Take-off 3 relations to science

• Improvements in Power sources
• Clearly driven by scientific practices and
  theoriesi.e Smeatons theoretically informed
  experiments on over/undershot waterwheelsled to
  widespread use.
• Watts work on separate condenser steam
  enginetheoretically informed, systematically
  carried out by person informally but thoroughly
  educated in contemporary sciences

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Commercial design of overshot wheel by Smeaton
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Watt --1

• Grandfather taught mathematics father a
  shipwright who studies math and natural
  philosophy as a hobby James educated at
  Greenock Academy strong in math. he studies
  major Newtonian text, SGravesandes Mathematical
  Elements of Natural Philosophy by age 15, learns
  German and Italian to read works in mechanics and
  instrument making reads widely then experiments
  extensively inventing new, theoretically
  informed measuring instruments (engine indicator
  card) to study efficiency of steam engines

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Watts engine indicator card
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Intended Upshot of Take-off

• Productivity of yarn maker increases 100 fold
• Price of yarn drops from 38p/lb. to 6p/lb.
  between 1760 and 1800
• Value of British cotton production
• .5 million in 1760
• 5 million in 1800
• 50 million in 1835

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Some unintended consequences

• Deskilling of jobs, dramatic increase in
  employment of women, children, depression of
  wages longer hours.
• The Luddite response.
• Social dislocations i.e. incidences of first
  conception out of wedlock 12 1700, 50 in
  1780 more than half of these ended with single
  mothers on poor relief (huge welfare burden)
  leads to tax rebellions.
• Sanitation cant keep up with urban growth
  diseases temporary dramatic increase in
  mortality rates. Typhoid epidemics.

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Science and Drive to Maturity

• Fueled heavily by chemical processes
• Bleaching story told in reading
• Wedgewood story told in reading
• One begins to see scientific knowledge as well as
  attitudes and practices playing a greater role
• Soda production story Soda (NaCO3) needed for
  baking for mgfr. of soaps glass
  traditionally produced by burning kelp, but
  demand grows too rapidly for supply to keep up
• French Academie des Sciences offers 12,000 livre
  prize for invention of commercially feasible
  method. Chemist Joseph LeBlanc wins (heat salt
  with sulphuric acid, creates sodium sulphate
  heat with limestone coal carbon, sodium
  carbonatesoda leached out with water
  collected by evaporating water)
• Eban Horsford story in U.S.

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Academic links of major British industrial
chemists c 1760-1820