What is the biggest organism ever

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What is the biggest organism ever?

• Apatosaurus?

Blue whale?
Coast redwood?
2
None of the above its a fungus

• A single clone of the honey mushroom
  Armillaria can cover more than 2,200 acres (1,600
  football fields)

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Fungi

• Chapter 31

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Fungal Origins
Choanoflagellates
Diplomonadida
Fungi
Parabasala
Euglenozoa
Chlorophyta
Rhodophyta
Cercozoa
Radiolaria
Animalia
Plantae
Alveolata
Stramenopila
Amoebozoa
Ancestral eukaryote
Figure 28.4
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Fungal Form and Function

• Anatomy
• Hyphae and mycelium

Hyphae- thread-like filaments, one cell thick
Reproductive structure or fruiting body
See Fig. 31.2
Mycelium interwoven mass of hyphae
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Fungal Form and Function

• Anatomy
• Hyphae and mycelium

Hyphae
Mycelium
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Fungal Form and Function

• Anatomy

Aseptate hypha, a.k.a. coenocytic
Septate hypha
See Fig. 31.3
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Fungal Form and Function

• Anatomy
• Cell walls contain chitin

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Fungal Form and Function

• Immobile adults

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Fungal Form and Function

• Unlike plants and animals,
• no distinct embryo is formed
• during early development

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Fungal Form and Function

• Nutrition
• Chemoheterotrophic
• Fungi exude exoenzymes that break down organic
  molecules that the fungi can absorb and use as a
  supply of both energy and carbon

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Fungal Form and Function

• Nutrition
• Chemoheterotrophic

Saprobic if they digest dead organisms and
waste products
Parasitic if they digest live organisms
Mutualistically symbiotic form associations
with other organisms for mutual benefit
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Fungal Life Cycles

• Three ploidy types

Haploid most fungal hyphae and all spores
have haploid nuclei
Diploid diploid nuclei are found transiently
during the sexual phase (if present)
Heterokaryon unfused nuclei from different
parents occupying the same unit of hypha
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Fungal Life Cycles

• Reproduction
• Asexual default mode under stable
• conditions spores are produced

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Fungal Life Cycles
Haploid (1n) spores are produced by mitosis
Key
Heterokaryotic stage
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic
PLASMOGAMY (fusion of cytoplasm)
Diploid (2n)
Spores are genetically identical to original
mycelium
KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing structures
Zygote
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
Spores disperse and germinate to
produce new myceliun
MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
GERMINATION
Spore-producing structures
Spores
See Fig. 31.5
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Fungal Form and Function

• Reproduction
• Asexual default mode under stable
• conditions spores are produced
• Sexual usually only under stressful
• conditions spores are produced

many mating types possible (essentially like
having many different sexes or genders)
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Sexual reproduction in fungi
fusion of compatible hyphae(plasmogamy)
dispersal of spores
fusion of nuclei(karyogamy)
meiosis of zygote-like structures
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Sexual reproduction in fungi
Haploid spores may disperse long distances away
from the fruiting body
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Fungal Life Cycles
Key
Fusion of compatible hyphae (plasmogamy)
Heterokaryotic stage
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic
PLASMOGAMY (fusion of cytoplasm)
Diploid (2n)
KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing structures
Zygote
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
GERMINATION
Spore-producing structures
Spores
See Fig. 31.5
20
Fungal Life Cycles
Key
Fusion of compatible hyphae (plasmogamy) initiat
es a heterokaryotic phase
Heterokaryotic stage
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic
PLASMOGAMY (fusion of cytoplasm)
Diploid (2n)
KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing structures
Zygote
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
GERMINATION
Spore-producing structures
Spores
See Fig. 31.5
21
Fungal Life Cycles
Key
Fusion of nuclei (karyogamy)
Heterokaryotic stage
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic
PLASMOGAMY (fusion of cytoplasm)
Diploid (2n)
KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing structures
Zygote
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
GERMINATION
Spore-producing structures
Spores
See Fig. 31.5
22
Fungal Life Cycles
Key
Fusion of nuclei (karyogamy) initiates a
zygotic phase
Heterokaryotic stage
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic
PLASMOGAMY (fusion of cytoplasm)
Diploid (2n)
KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing structures
Zygote
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
GERMINATION
Spore-producing structures
Spores
See Fig. 31.5
23
Fungal Life Cycles
Key
Fusion of nuclei (karyogamy) initiates a
zygotic phase which is perhaps best described
as zygote like
Heterokaryotic stage
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic
PLASMOGAMY (fusion of cytoplasm)
Diploid (2n)
KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing structures
Zygote
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
GERMINATION
Spore-producing structures
Spores
See Fig. 31.5
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Fungal Life Cycles
Key
Meiosis in zygote-like cells produces spores or
cells that will produce spores
Heterokaryotic stage
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic
PLASMOGAMY (fusion of cytoplasm)
Diploid (2n)
KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing structures
Zygote
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
GERMINATION
Spore-producing structures
Spores
See Fig. 31.5
25
Fungal Life Cycles
Both asexual sexual reproduction produce
haploid spores
Key
Heterokaryotic stage
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic
PLASMOGAMY (fusion of cytoplasm)
Diploid (2n)
KARYOGAMY (fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing structures
Zygote
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
GERMINATION
Spore-producing structures
Spores
See Fig. 31.5
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Fugal Diversity
Over 100,000 species described
Over 1000 additional species described each year
Loss of flagella

• 5 phyla

See Fig. 31.9
Flagella may have been lost multiple times in
the fist two lineages
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Chytrids
• Ancient group diverged earliest from the
  other fungi

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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Chytrids
• Ancient group diverged earliest from the
  other fungi
• Aquatic
• the only fungi with flagellated spores
  (zoospores)

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Sexual reproduction in a chytrid flagellated
spores
spores
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Chytrids
• Ancient group diverged earliest from the
  other fungi
• Aquatic
• the only fungi with flagellated spores
• (zoospores)
• Saprobic majority
• Parasitic some

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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Zygomycetes Zygote fungi
• Sexual reproduction via zygosporangia
  (resistant heterokaryons) that produce
  genetically variable spores

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Key
Black Bread Mold
Haploid (1n)
Heterokaryotic (1n 1n)
Diploid (2n)
Plasmogamy
Mating type ()
Mating type (-)
Sexual reproduction
Zygosporangium
Karyogamy
Asexual reproduction
Meiosis
See Fig. 31.12
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Zygomycetes Zygote fungi
• Sexual reproduction via zygosporangia
  (resistant heterokaryons) that produce
  genetically variable spores
• Asexual reproduction via sporangia that
  produce spores

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Key
Black Bread Mold
Haploid (1n)
Heterokaryotic (1n 1n)
Diploid (2n)
Plasmogamy
Mating type ()
Mating type (-)
Sexual Reproduction
Zygosporangium
Karyogamy
Asexual Reproduction
Meiosis
See Fig. 31.12
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Zygomycetes Zygote fungi
• Sexual reproduction via zygosporangia
  (resistant heterokaryons) that produce
  genetically variable spores
• Asexual reproduction via sporangia that
  produce spores
• Mostly saprobic decayers of organic matter,
  e.g., soft fruit rot fungi and black bread
  mold

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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Zygomycetes Zygote fungi
• Sexual reproduction via zygosporangia
  (resistant heterokaryons) that produce
  genetically variable spores
• Asexual reproduction via sporangia that
  produce spores
• Mostly saprobic decayers of organic matter,
• e.g., soft fruit rot fungi and black bread mold
• Some parasites, e.g., single-celled
  microsporidia

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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Glomeromycetes Arbuscular mycorrhizae
• Associated with 90 of plant species

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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi
• Sexual reproduction via spores produced in
  asci (sac-like cases)

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Key
Neurospora
Haploid (1n)
Heterokaryotic (1n 1n)
Conidia of mating type (-)
Diploid (2n)
Asexual Reproduction
Plasmogamy
Hyphae of mating type ()
Karyogamy
Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis
SeeFig. 31.17
Ascocarp, ascus,and ascospores
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi
• Sexual reproduction via spores produced in
  asci (sac-like cases)
• Asexual reproduction via naked spores
  (conidia)

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Key
Neurospora an ascomycete
Haploid (1n)
Heterokaryotic (1n 1n)
Conidia of mating type (-)
Diploid (2n)
Asexual Reproduction
Plasmogamy
Hyphae of mating type ()
Karyogamy
Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis
SeeFig. 31.17
Ascocarp, ascus,and ascospores
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi

Many saprobic species, e.g., Scarlet cups
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi

Many parasites, especially of plants, but also of
animals, e.g., Candida yeasts
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi

Many symbionts with plants, e.g., truffles
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi

Morels Delicacy or deadly
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi

Sources of many interesting chemicals E.g.,
Penicillium the source of penicillin
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi

Sources of many interesting chemicals E.g., the
source of LSD
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi

The yeasts used to brew beer
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Ascomycetes Sac fungi

and bake breads and pizza crusts
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Classification of Fungi
but the mushrooms that top your pizza come from
a different phylum
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Basidiomycetes Club fungi
• Include
• common mushroom, puffballs,
• stink horns, shelf fungi,
• plant-parasitic smuts rusts

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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Basidiomycetes Club fungi
• Include
• common mushroom, puffballs,
• stink horns, shelf fungi,
• plant-parasitic smuts rusts
• Sexual reproduction via club-shaped
  reproductive structures, basidia,
  containing basidiospores

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A mushroom-forming basidiomycete
Plasmogamy
SeeFig. 31.20
Basidiocarp
Mating type (-)
Mating type ()
Sexual Reproduction
Basidia with basidiospores
Karyogamy
Meiosis
Key
Haploid (1n)
Heterokaryotic (1n 1n)
Diploid (2n)
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Classification of Fungi

• Phylum Basidiomycetes Club fungi
• Include
• common mushroom, puffballs,
• stink horns, shelf fungi,
• plant-parasitic smuts rusts
• Sexual reproduction via club-shaped
  reproductive structures, basidia,
  containing basidiospores
• Asexual reproduction is uncommon

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Phylum Basidiomycetes Club fungi
Fruiting bodies of the inky cap mushroom
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Phylum Basidiomycetes Club fungi Basidia are
generally found on the surface of gills
gills
basidiospores
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Phylum Basidiomycetes Club fungi Basidia are
generally found on the surface of gills
gills
basidiospores
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Phylum Basidiomycetes Club fungi Basidia are
generally found on the surface of gills
Amanita spore pattern
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Phylum Basidiomycetes Club fungi
Shelf fungi
Giant puffball
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Phylum Basidiomycetes Club fungi Parasitic
corn smut
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Classification of Fungi

• Deuteromycetes - Imperfect Fungi
• Eclectic group of unclassified species

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Classification of Fungi

• Deuteromycetes - Imperfect Fungi
• Eclectic group of unclassified species
• Sexual structures unknown (i.e., no
• flagellated spores, zygosporangia,
• asci, or basidia), so these havent been
  classified

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Classification of Fungi

• Deuteromycetes - Imperfect Fungi
• Eclectic group of currently unclassified species
• Sexual structures unknown (i.e., no
• flagellated spores, zygosporangia,
• asci, or basidia), so these havent been
  classified
• Includes many molds and mildews (which
  demonstrates that certain commonly
  recognized groups are not good phylogenetic
  groups)

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Functional Biology of Fungi

• Molds
• Many rapidly growing, asexually reproducing
  fungi (mostly ascomycetes and basidiomycetes)

Ecosystems on Earth would collapse without the
molds and mildews (plus many bacteria) that
break down organic matter into inorganic
nutrients
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Functional Biology of Fungi

• Yeasts
• Many unicellular fungi that inhabit liquid or
  moist surfaces and reproduce asexually

Occur in the Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes
Zygomycetes
Free-living, parasitic, and mutualistic
symbiotic forms exist
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Functional Biology of Fungi

• Mycorrhizae
• Symbiotic associations with plants
  (representatives known from all fungal phyla,
  not just Glomeromycetes)

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Functional Biology of Fungi

• Lichens
• Obligate symbiotic associations with algae or
  cyanobacteria

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Functional Biology of Fungi

• Parasites

Chestnut blight
Ringworm
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Functional Biology of Fungi

• Toxin producers

Aflatoxin
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Functional Biology of Fungi

• Biotic control agents

The first antibiotic used by humans
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Functional Biology of Fungi

• Biotic control agents

Used against termites, rice weevils, etc.
73
Functional Biology of Fungi
Interesting example of agriculture in
insects Leaf-cutter ants cut and carry leaf
fragments to their nests where the fragments
are used to farm fungi
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Interesting example of fungal cowboys Some soil
fungisnare nematodeworms in hyphalnooses and
thendigest them
unlucky nematode
fungal hypha
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Interesting example of fungi conservation
The golden toad became extinct within the past
20 years, owing to anthropogenicenvironmental
deterioration,which also facilitated pathogenic
chytrid fungi