Announcements - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

1 / 77
About This Presentation
Title:

Announcements

Description:

Splints and surgical implements have been discovered as well ... Prevention, diagnosis, treatment, analysis, technology advancement, rehabilitation ... – PowerPoint PPT presentation

Number of Views:94
Avg rating:3.0/5.0
Slides: 78
Provided by: rhonda8
Category:

less

Transcript and Presenter's Notes

Title: Announcements


1
Announcements
  • TTU and Graduate School Scholarships
  • Departmental site and follow links to
    scholarships
  • http//www.depts.ttu.edu/gradschool/scholarships/
  • Deadlines begin in February (Feb. 3)

2
Injury, Musculoskeletal Tissues Joints
  • ESS 5310-001
  • Lecture 2 (2-day)
  • Reading WZ Chapters 1 2

3
Part 1
  • Injury

4
Epidemiology from Injury in U.S.
  • 8 million people expected to die from injury in
    U.S.
  • 40 ER admissions and clinics due to
    unintentional injury
  • Resulting in an annual cost (1996) of 435
    billion
  • 5th leading cause of death in U.S.
  • 3rd leading cause of death if injury related to
    homicide is categorized as unintentional injury

5
Impact of Injury
  • Remaining Lifespan following injury is 36 years
  • Compare with 12 yrs for cardiovascular disease
  • National Center for Health Statistics (1995)
  • Unintentional injury as leading cause of death
    (considering impact and years of potential life
    lost)
  • Disabling Injury
  • Every 10 minutes, 2 people killed and 370 incur a
    disabling injury (NSC)
  • 8.3 million each year

6
Terminology
  • Mechanics
  • Branch of science that deals with the effects of
    forces and energy on objects
  • Mechanism
  • Fundamental physical process responsible for a
    given action, reaction, or result

7
Musculoskeletal Injury Considerations
  • Study of injury breaks across several
    disciplines
  • Anatomy Physiology
  • Mechanics
  • Kinesiology
  • Medicine
  • Engineering
  • Psychology
  • Thus proper study of musculoskeletal injury is by
    default a multidisciplinary approach.

8
Historical Perspective
  • Evidence of lesions, fractures and arthritis
    exist from assorted archeological discoveries and
    uncovered skeletal remains
  • Nature of injuries leads to insight as to the
    history of an era
  • Splints and surgical implements have been
    discovered as well
  • Drawing a time-line to the development of todays
    treatments of injury
  • e.g. casts and splints, knives dating back to
    1000BC (predating Hippocrates)

9
Greeks, Romans and
  • Decline of Roman Empire (476)
  • Dark Ages took Europe
  • Progress in medical science virtually ceased
  • Meanwhile in Asia
  • Tang Dynasty (China, 619-901)
  • Surgery recognized as special medical branch
  • Orthopedic treatment of fracture and dislocation
  • Hippocrates (460-377 BC)
  • Began evolution of medical practice (specialized)
  • Study and treatment of injury
  • Homer (Iliad)
  • Made reference to over 100 specific wounds
  • Galen (129-199)
  • Credited with defining the direction of medical
    treatment for next 1500 years
  • Nature of muscle contraction anatomy
  • Treatment of spinal deformities (kyphosis,
    scoliosis, lordosis)

10
Progress in Medical Industry
  • The enhanced knowledge of human anatomy drove the
    understanding of function.
  • Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
  • Intrigued by pain and trauma
  • Illustrations of painful expressions
  • Joints serve as shock absorbers (impact)
  • That which gives more resistance to a blow
    suffers most damage
  • Industrial Revolution (19th century)
  • Accelerated advancements in medicine
  • Clinical arthroscopy (Bircher, early 1900s)
  • Accompanied by an increase in injury caused by
    machinery
  • Progress continues today

11
Epidemiology
  • Epidemiology
  • Study of the incidence, distribution, and control
    of disease and injury in a given population
  • 2 Kinds
  • Descriptive frequency an distribution of a
    particular injury
  • Rely on categorizing incidents according to the
    severity of the injury, location where the injury
    took place, type of disability, subset of
    population affected and type of activity
  • Mutually exclusive, Exhaustive, Useful
  • Analytical attempts to pinpoint the causal
    relation
  • More difficult and time consuming

12
In the last decade
  • Practicality and improved technology of joint
    replacement
  • Laser surgery
  • Advanced imaging techniques (e.g. MRI, 3D
    sonogram)
  • Microsurgery
  • Computer/robot assisted surgery

13
Injury Terminology
  • Injury Incidence
  • Number of new injuries in a fixed time period
    divided by the number of people at risk
  • Injury Prevalence
  • Number of people with an injury divided by the
    number of people at risk
  • Risk Factor
  • Something that contributes to increasing the
    probability of an injury
  • e.g. Occupation, activity pattern, age, sex,
    injury history, recreational pursuits,
    environmental conditions

14
Injury Terminology
  • Injury Rate
  • Number of injuries in a population divided by a
    reference measure (e.g. number of people in
    population, hours of exposure)
  • e.g. Estimates of metatarsal stress fractures per
    1000 runners, concussions per 100,000 contact
    hours
  • Relative Risk
  • Measure of the likelihood of an injury happening
    in one group versus another group
  • Requires knowledge of reliable incidence data for
    both groups

15
Sources for Reliable Injury Data
  • National Safety Council
  • Insurance Companies
  • Law Enforcement Agencies
  • Occupational Safety and Health Administration
    (OSHA)
  • Traffic Safety Boards
  • Much of the available data are on injury-related
    death
  • Raises questions as to what data are actually
    reported?

16
Some Statistics
  • Deaths due to injury are higher in young people
  • Accidental injury is the leading cause of death
    in 1-44 year olds (1995)
  • Accidental injury is 2 cause of death in young
    adults (ages 25-44y) (CDCP)
  • AIDS surpassed Injury as 1 in 1995
  • Accidental injury is still 1 in children

17
Health Care Perspectives
  • Health Care Professionals
  • Prevention, diagnosis, treatment, analysis,
    technology advancement, rehabilitation
  • Those affected by injury
  • Engineers, safety consultants, supervisors,
    parents, teachers, coaches
  • Emergency medical physicians and staff
  • Physicians, athletic trainers, allied health
    professionals
  • Physical and occupational therapists

18
Economic Perspective
  • Economic Impact
  • Public policy (, legislation, health care)
  • Committee on Trauma Research, 1985 (Injury in
    America highlighted injury cost and economic
    impact)
  • Direct cost, morbidity costs, mortality costs
  • Estimated annual cost 200 billion (1993), 430
    billion (1995)
  • Economic Statistics from 1995
  • 2 million individuals hospitalized as a result of
    injury
  • 10 of hospital discharges and 16 of hospital
    days
  • Ages 15-44 years, injury-related death resulted
    in 3.7 million years of life lost
  • Ages 15-44 years, 2.7 million years of lost
    productivity due to either temporary or permanent
    disability
  • For every person hospitalized, 25 people sustain
    injury needing medical attention

19
Psychological Perspective
  • Psychological factors may influence likelihood
    and severity of injury and the course of healing
    and rehabilitation
  • Risk behaviors, predisposition to injury, human
    error and accidents, theories of causation, risk
    evaluation, and emotional response to injury
  • Injury likelihood is influenced by
  • Task, environment, persons psychological state

20
Human Error
  • Inappropriate or undesirable human decision of
    behavior that reduces, or has the potential for
    reducing, effectiveness, safety, or system
    performance
  • Incidence
  • Direct action of the injured person
  • Indirect poor decision made by an engineer in
    design process
  • Methods of Reduction
  • Selecting people with appropriate skill and
    capability
  • Proper training
  • Effective equipment design, operation procedures,
    and environment

21
Accident Theory
  • Accident-Proneness
  • Some people are just more prone to accidents
  • Accident-Liability
  • People are prone to accidents in certain
    situations (temporary)
  • Capability-Demand
  • Accidents increase when job demands exceed worker
    capability
  • Adjustment to Stress
  • Accidents increase in high-stress situations in
    excess of individuals ability to cope
  • Arousal-Alertness
  • Accidents are more likely when arousal is too low
    or too high
  • Goals-Freedom-Alertness
  • Freedom of workers to set their own goals results
    in high-quality performance, which reduces
    accidents
  • No one theory holds sufficiently for all accident
    cases
  • Thus, (as with most theories) a combination of
    any or all may apply

22
Contributing Factors
  • Management
  • Physical environment
  • Equipment design and operation
  • Task or nature of work itself
  • Social and psychological environment
  • Workers and co-workers

23
Risk
  • Likelihood of injury or death associated with a
    particular object, task, or environment
  • Perception of risk may be distorted by
  • Overestimation of expertise and experience
  • Overemphasizing situations receiving media
    attention
  • Adoption of It cant happen to me philosophy

24
Approaches to Injury Prevention
  • Injury Control
  • Strategies of prevention
  • Modification of hazards rate of occurrence
  • Protection
  • Stabilization, repair and rehabilitation of
    damage/injury
  • Health and Safety Education
  • Seeks to reduce the incidence and severity of
    injury through education and knowledge
  • Injury Prevention Strategies
  • Persuade/Educate to alter behavior LEAST
    EFFECTIVE
  • Require changes in individual behavior (e.g.
    enforce laws and safety protocols)
  • Automatic protection by product or environmental
    design (e.g. air bags, automated seat belts,
    anti-lock brakes) MOST EFFECTIVE

25
Scientific Perspective on Injury
  • Anatomists
  • Structures and tissues
  • Physiologists
  • Repair and remodeling process
  • Psychologists
  • Behavioral aspects
  • Engineers
  • Equipment and structures to prevent and minimize
    injury
  • Physics, Mechanics and Energy are key
  • Thermal, electrical, magnetic, and chemical
    energy can cause injury, but MOST injuries
    involve mechanical energy
  • Biomechanics - logical discipline to study
    musculoskeletal injury

26
Priority for Biomechanics Research
  • Injury mechanism clarification and understanding
  • Quantification of the injury-related responses of
    tissues (e.g. nervous system, joints, muscles)
  • Defining limits of human tolerance to injury,
    especially for high risk or low visibility
    populations (e.g. children, women)
  • Improvements in injury assessment technology
    (e.g. computer simulations, crash test dummies,
    diagnostic tools)
  • Training organization development (training
    institutions, programs, fellowships)

27
Part 1 Summary
  • Epidemiology and Risk
  • Database sources and statistics
  • Perspectives on Injury
  • Healthcare, Economic Impact, Psychological
  • Human Error
  • Accident Theory and Contributing Factors
  • Injury Prevention
  • Injury Biomechanics Research

28
Part 2
  • Joints

29
Joints
  • Arthology
  • Classification of joints and joint motion
  • Categories of Joints
  • Joints without cavity
  • Synarthrodial (immovable)
  • Amphiarthrodial (slightly movable)
  • Joints with a cavity
  • Diarthrodial (movable)

30
Joints without Cavities
  • Synarthrodial or Fibrous
  • Bones held together by fibrous articulations
  • Little or no movement
  • Example
  • Sutures in skull, tibiofibular joint
  • Amphiarthrodial or Cartilaginous
  • Hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage holds joints
    together
  • Little movement (but more than synarthrodial)
  • Example
  • Intervertebral discs

31
Types of Diarthrodial Joints
32
Table 2.3
33
Form and Function
  • Structure of the human musculoskeletal system
    somewhat dictates function
  • Different joints allow rotations in only certain
    planes, while restricting motion in other planes
  • Think of the joint structure and how the
    muscle-tendon complex crosses the joint
  • Then think of the motion that is allowed at the
    joint
  • Example Hip versus Knee

34
Joint Structure vs. Function
  • In the musculoskeletal system
  • Structure (morphology) often determines function
  • Can you think of some examples?

35
Structure Dictating Function
  • Knee Joint (condylar)
  • Flexion and Extension
  • Allows some anterior translation
  • Also allows slight rotation during full extension
  • Cervical Vertebrae
  • Large range of motion (flexion, extension,
    rotation, lateral flexion)
  • Small, and not weight bearing
  • Lumbar Vertebrae
  • Good range of motion in flexion and extension
    (less than cervical)
  • Large, weight bearing
  • Thoracic Vertebrae
  • Very little range of motion (Why?)
  • Fairly large but not as large as lumbar
  • Can you think of other examples?

36
Joint Structure vs. Function
  • In the musculoskeletal system
  • Structure (morphology) determines function
  • Several examples noted
  • Does or can function influence structure?
  • What are some examples?

37
Types of Diarthrodial Joints
Plane or Gliding Joint Two flat surfaces slide
over one another (Ex Carpals)
38
Degrees of Freedom
  • Number of planes in which a joint can move
  • 1 DOF
  • Uniaxial (hinge joint)
  • Example Inter-phalangeal (flex-extend)
  • 2 DOF
  • Biaxial
  • Example Wrist (flex-extend, ulnar-radial
    deviation)
  • 3 DOF
  • Triaxial
  • Example Shoulder (flex-extend, abd-add, IR-ER)

39
Joint Formatione.g. Knee
  • 26-28 day embryo
  • Occurs between weeks 4 to 10 in human embryo
  • Basic Process
  • Mesenchymal cells gather in developing limb
  • Blastema
  • Produces capsule, ligaments, synovial lining, and
    menisci
  • Bones at this stage are basically cartilage
    undergoing ossification
  • Interzonal mesenchyme condenses
  • Articular disk (eventual joint plate formation)
  • About 10 weeks later the joint is fully developed
  • Cavity becomes synovial cavity
  • Movement is important in proper embryonic
    development

40
(No Transcript)
41
Part 2 Summary
  • Joints (Arthrology)
  • Degrees of Freedom
  • Joint Development

42
Part 3
  • Musculoskeletal Tissues

43
Overview
  • Embryology
  • Types of Tissues
  • Epithelial, Nervous, Muscle, Connective
  • Constituents of Connective Tissue
  • Cells, Extracellular Matrix, Tissue Fluid
  • Specific Tissue Comparisons
  • Bone
  • Cartilage
  • Ligament, Tendon Fascia
  • Muscle
  • Joints

44
Embryology
  • Day 1
  • Fertilization produces zygote
  • Day 5
  • Zygote becomes embryo
  • Blastocyte (cell mass)
  • Ectoderm Cell boundary layer along amniotic sac
  • Endoderm Cell boundary layer along yolk sac
  • Day 16
  • Evidence of spinal cord
  • Intraembrionic Mesodermal Layer is produced
  • Layer of cells spread between endoderm and
    ectoderm
  • Day 20
  • Distinct neural structures (plate, groove, and
    folds)
  • First somites appear
  • Cuboidal bodies that create distinct elevations
    and thus contours of embryo

45
Embryology
  • Week 4
  • Cell proliferation and migration, creating the
    sclerotome
  • Sclerotome condenses near notchcord (remaining
    wall of somite)
  • Sclerotome gives rise to the dermatome
  • Dermatome produces cells which form the myotome
  • Myotome eventually gives rise to musculature

46
Embryology
  • Mesenchyme
  • Undifferentiated cells of sclerotome
  • Progenitor tissue of adult connective tissues
    (e.g. cartilage, ligament, fascia, tendon, blood
    cells, vessels, skin, bone, muscle)
  • Unique in their ability to differentiate into a
    variety of cells (e.g. fibroblasts,
    chondroblasts, osteoblasts)

47
Types of Tissues
  • Four Types of Tissue
  • Epithelial
  • Nervous
  • Muscle
  • Connective

48
Epithelial Tissue
  • Covering or lining tissue
  • Derived from the two embryonic layers (endoderm
    and ectoderm)
  • Functions
  • Absorb, secrete, transport and excrete tissue
    fluid
  • Protect underlying organs or tissues
  • Characteristics
  • No capillaries
  • Nourished by tissue fluid from capillaries of
    connective tissues
  • Not strong, but firmly bound to connective tissue
    (only a thin layer of basement membrane)
  • Cells are continuously generated and lost

49
Epithelial Tissue
  • Structure
  • Simple
  • Single layer of cells
  • Stratified
  • 2 or more layers of cells
  • Shape
  • Squamous
  • Cuboidal
  • Columnar

50
Epithelial Tissue
  • Prominent role
  • Mechanically weak, although serving as a
    protective layer for organs and tissues beneath
  • Diffusion of fluids and heat
  • Bioelectric conduction

51
Nervous Tissue
  • Develops from the ectoderm
  • Comprises main parts of the nervous system
  • Brain
  • Spinal cord
  • Peripheral nerves
  • Nerve endings
  • Sense organs

52
Nervous Tissue
  • Structure
  • Neuron (nerve cell)
  • Basic unit of nervous tissue
  • Function
  • Communication
  • Characteristics
  • Irritability (reacts to chemical or physical
    stimulii)
  • Conductivity (transmit impulses from one location
    to another)

53
Nervous Tissue
  • Dendrites
  • Conduct nerve impulses toward the cell body
  • May be many dendrites per cell
  • Axons
  • Conduct nerve impulses away from the cell body
  • Only one axon per cell
  • Nerve tissue may be injured by excess tension or
    compression

54
Muscle Tissue
  • Developed from mesoderm
  • 3 Categories
  • Skeletal
  • Smooth
  • Cardiac
  • Primary Function
  • Conduction of impulses
  • Contraction

55
Skeletal Muscle
  • Characteristics
  • Striated muscle
  • Fibers exhibit cross striations
  • Multinucleated cells
  • Voluntary control
  • Surrounded by a layer (sheath) of connective
    tissue which blends into tendon
  • Primary Function
  • Generating force
  • Maintain posture
  • Produce body movement

56
Smooth Muscle
  • Characteristics
  • More multidirectional cell organization
  • Does not appear striated
  • Under involuntary control
  • Location
  • Walls of tubes in arteries, intenstine, and
    respiratory systems
  • Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous system
    innervations

57
Cardiac Muscle
  • Characteristics of both skeletal and smooth
    muscle
  • Striated
  • Involuntary (generally)
  • Heart Tissue
  • Nervous stimulation results in a single
    contraction from the entire tissue (functional
    syncytium)

58
Connective Tissue
  • Derived from the mesoderm
  • Cell Characteristics
  • Soft
  • Easily deformed
  • In itself unable to contract or transmit loads
  • Extracellular Matrix (of each specialized tissue)
  • Dictates tissue form
  • Composition of matrix establishes physical
    characteristics
  • Soft, gel-like (e.g. skin, ligament)
  • Rigid matrix (e.g. bone)
  • Primary Role
  • Produce and maintain the extracellular matrix
    (each appropriately of bone, cartilage, tendon,
    ligament)

59
Connective Tissue
  • Principal Fibers
  • Collagenous
  • Reticular
  • Elastic
  • Physical Structure
  • Loose
  • Dense (2 kinds)
  • Dense Irregular
  • Loose, randomly interwoven fibers (e.g. fascia)
  • Dense Regular
  • Organized fibers (e.g. tendon, ligament,
    aponeuroses)

60
Loose Connective Tissue
  • More prevalent than dense
  • 4 Basic Types
  • Fibroelastic
  • Areolar
  • Reticular
  • Adipose
  • Fiber Make-up
  • Elastic fibers, thus extensible
  • Collagen
  • Liquid extracellular matrix that bathes the cells
    and fibers

61
Fibroelastic Tissue
  • Loose, woven network encapsulating most organs
    (mesh-like)
  • Collagen organization allows extensibility
  • Stretch initially does not deform fibers, as
    first fibers become aligned with load
  • Contrast with Dense (arranged in parallel)
  • Since collagen is already in line with load,
    fibers quickly resist applied tensile load
  • Elastic fibers help return tissue back to
    original position after load is released

62
Areolar Tissue
  • Loose connective tissue
  • Saturates almost every area of the body
  • Characteristics
  • Fibroblasts and Macrophages are abundant
  • Collagenous, elastic and reticular fibers give
    limited strength
  • Generally weak and easily pulled apart
  • Reticular fibers serve as boundary between
    Areolar and other structures

63
Reticular Tissue
  • Loose Connective Tissue
  • Make-up
  • Reticular fibers and primitive cells
  • Resembles early mesenchymal tissue
  • Primitive cells can differentiate into
    fibroblasts, macrophages, and plasma cells
  • Location
  • Near lymph nodes
  • In bone marrow, liver and spleen
  • Around nerves, muscles and blood vessels

64
Adipose Tissue
  • Loose Connective Tissue
  • Appears an aggregate of fat cells surrounded by
    areolar tissue
  • Any loose connective tissue can accumulate fat
  • When fat predominates the tissue is called
    adipose
  • Make-up
  • Reticular fibers surround each fat cell
  • Capillaries found between cells
  • Increased vascularity enables increased
    metabolism of tissue
  • Location
  • Around organs in abdomen, under skin, and in bone
    marrow
  • Function
  • Prevention of heat dissipation
  • Act as cushion for skeleton during impacts

65
Connective Tissue Constituents
  • Cells
  • Extracellular matrix
  • Tissue Fluid

66
Cells
  • Resident (stable, maintain extracellular matrix)
  • Undiffentiated Mesenshymal Cells (Stem Cells)
  • Fibroblasts, osteoblasts, chondroblasts (become
    -cytes as mature cells)
  • Migratory (wandering)
  • Macrophages, monocytes, basophils, neutrophils,
    eosinophils, mast cells, lymphosytes, plasma)
  • Travel via bloodstream usually in reaction to
    injury
  • Macrophage (defense system)
  • Mast Cell (heparin, anticoagulant)
  • Heparin (anticoagulant)
  • Histamine (vasodilator)
  • Serotonin (vasoconstrictor)

67
Extracellular Matrix
  • Blend of protein fibers (collagen, elastin),
    matrix glycoproteins, and tissue fluid
  • Collagen
  • Most abundant protein in human body
  • Comprises 30 of total protein
  • Organization of fibers is tissue specific
  • All key connective tissue cells can produce
    collagen
  • More than 20 different types of collagen
    discovered
  • Location
  • Type 1 (most abundant)
  • Skin, bone, tendon, ligament, cornea
  • Type II
  • Cartilage
  • Type III
  • Loose connective tissue, dermis of skin, blood
    vessel walls

68
Extracellular Matrix
  • Elastic Fibers
  • Components
  • Elastin
  • Microfibrils (small bundles embedded in elastin)
  • Structure
  • More slender and extensible than collagen
  • Characteristics
  • 150 stretch capability before rupture
  • Other
  • Complex glycoproteins
  • Proteoglycan (between fibers and ground substance)

69
Tissue Fluid
  • Filtrate of blood
  • Location
  • Intercellular (interstitial) spaces
  • Function
  • Aids in transport of material between capillaries
    and cells in extracellular matrix
  • Return waste to venous end for removal
  • Lymphatic system may depose wastes
  • If blockage occurs in lymphatics, tissue fluid is
    trapped and swelling results

70
Bone
  • Characteristics
  • Hardest and strongest tissue in the body
  • Function
  • Protects vital organs
  • Mineral storehouse
  • Houses bone marrow hematopoietic cells (blood
    cell formation)
  • Provides levers allowing muscles to control
    movement
  • Continuous remodeling due to
  • Stresses
  • Alterations in mechanical load
  • Changes in systemic hormones
  • Changes in serum calcium levels
  • Osseous (bone tissue)
  • Same make-up, different function
  • Cortical (compact, very dense, outer layer)
  • Cancellous (spongy, very porous, inner layer)

71
Cartilage
  • Contains cells and extracellular matrix
  • 3 kinds of cartilage
  • Hyaline (most abundant)
  • Elastic
  • Fibrocartilage
  • Characteristics
  • Develops from mesenchyme
  • Lack of intrinsic blood vessels, nerves or lymph
    vessels
  • Necessary to receive nutrients from diffusion

72
Tendon and Ligament
  • Principal cells are fibroblasts
  • Characteristics
  • Regularly arranged dense fibrous tissue
  • Fibers organized into parallel bundles
  • Primarily contain fibers and extracellular matrix
    components
  • Great tensile strength
  • Able to resist stretch in essentially one
    direction, essentially parallel to fibers
  • Includes tendons, ligaments and aponeuroses

73
Fascia
  • Catch all term
  • Characteristics
  • Dense, fibrous, unorganized tissue
  • Collagenous with some elastic and reticular
    elements
  • Structure
  • Interwoven, meshlike, non-parallel fibers
  • Location
  • Sheaths around organs, blood vessels, bones and
    cartilage
  • Dermis of the skin
  • Function
  • Provides framework and support for muscles
  • Fibers withstand stretch in many direction due to
    unorganized fiber arrangement

74
Skeletal Muscle
  • Prime movers of the nervous system
  • Two major elements
  • Contractile proteins
  • Network of connective tissue
  • Characteristics
  • Stiffness (from fibrous connective tissues within
    muscle belly and tendon)
  • Enhances tension transfer

75
Skeletal Muscle
76
Part 3 Summary
  • Embriology
  • Tissue Types
  • Epithelial
  • Nervous
  • Muscle
  • Connective
  • Overview of Connective Tissues
  • Bone
  • Cartilage
  • Tendons Ligaments
  • Fascia
  • Skeletal Muscle

77
For next time
  • Reading from Chapter 3
  • Review of Biomechanical Concepts
  • Kinematics and Kinetics
  • Assignment 1
Write a Comment
User Comments (0)
About PowerShow.com