CS157A Lecture 2 DB Mangement Systems

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CS157A Lecture 2 DB Mangement Systems

• Prof. Sin-Min Lee
• Department of Computer Science
• San Jose State University

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Objectives
In this Lecture you will learn

• Purpose of Database Systems
• View of Data
• Data Models
• Data Definition Language
• Data Manipulation Language
• Transaction Management
• Storage Management
• Database Administrator
• Database Users
• Overall System Structure

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1. Database Theory

• Why use database?
• Data is a valuable corporate resource which needs
  adequate, accuracy, consistency and security
  controls.
• The centralised control of data means that for
  many applications the data will already exist,
  and facilitate quicker development.
• Data will no longer be related by application
  programs, but by the structure defined in the
  database.
• Easier to maintain systems

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First generation database systems

• The network and hierarchical databases of the
  1970s
• The first systems to offer DBMS function in a
  unified system
• e.g. CODASYL, IMS

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Second generation database systems

• relational databases of the 1980s
• data independence and non procedural data
  manipulation language
• e.g. DB2, INGRES, NON-STOP SQL, ORACLE, Rdb/VMS
• Focused on business data processing

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Third generation database systems

• Problems with 2nd generation DBS
• inadequate for a broader class of applications
  (than business data processing)
• e.g. CAD, CASE, Hypertext,
• storing text segments, graphics, etc is usually
  difficult in 2nd gen. systems
• Does not support complex data (folders)
• Most vendors are working on functional
  enhancements on their 2nd gen. systems
• Surprising degree of consensus on these features
• 3rd gen systems includes the desired capabilities
  of next generation database systems

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DATABASE AND DBMS CONCEPTS
Database is a collection of data, typically
describing the activities of one or more related
organizations. A Database Management System DBMS)
is software designed to assist in maintaining and
utilization large collections of data. The SQL
(Structured Query Language), developed by IBM is
now the standard query language.
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ADVANTAGES OF A DBMS

• Data independence
• Application programs should not, ideally, be
  exposed to details of data representation and
  storage.
• Efficient Data access
• A DBMS uses several powerful functions to store
  and retrieve data efficiently.
• Data Integrity and Security
• The DBMS enforces integrity constraints to get a
  kind of protection against prohibited access to
  data.

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ADVANTAGES OF A DBMS

• Data Administration
• When any users share the data, centralizing the
  administration of data can offer significant
  improvements.
• Concurrent Access and Crash Recovery
• A DBMS schedules concurrent access to the data in
  such manner that users can think of the data as
  being accessed by only one user at a time. DBMS
  also protects users from the effects of system
  failures.
• Reduced Application Development Time
• DBMS includes several important functions that
  are common to many applications accessing data in
  the DBMS. In conjunction with the high-level
  interface to the data, facilitates quick
  application development.

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DATA MODEL CONCEPT

• A data model is a collection of high-level data
  description constructs that hide many low-level
  storage details.
• Most database management systems today are based
  on the Relational data model.

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THE RELATIONAL MODEL

• The central data description construct is this
  model is a Relation, which can be thought of a
  set of records.
• A Schema for a relation specifies
• Name of relation (e.g. Students)
• Name of each field (or attribute or column)
• Type of each field.
• Schema Sudents (sidstring,ageinteger
  )

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Example of an Instance of Students
Students
Sid Age
53-666 28
53-688 35
Schema ------gt Students (sid String, Age
Integer)
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Characteristics

• Each row in the Students relation is a record
  that describes any student.
• Integrity constraints are conditions that the
  records must satisfy. E.g. sid is unique.
• Oracle uses relational( and also object) data
  model.

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Levels of Abstraction in a DBMS

• Conceptual Schema or logical schema describes
  all relations that are stored in the database.
• In the university example, these relations
  contain information about entities, such as
  students and faculty, and about relationships,
  such as students enrollment in courses.

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Conceptual Schema

• For university, a conceptual schema is
• Students(sidstring,Ageinteger)
• Faculty (fid string, salary real)
• Courses (cid string, cname string,
  creditsinteger)

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Physical Schema

• Physical Schema specifies additional storage
  details.
• It summarizes how the relations described in the
  conceptual schema are stored on secondary storage
  devices such as disks and tapes.
• Creation of data structures called indexes, to
  speed up data retrieval operations

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Physical Schema

• A sample physical schema for the university
• Store all relations as unsorted files of records
• Create indexes on the first column of Students,
  Faculty, and Courses relations.

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External Schema

• Each external schema consists of a collection of
  one or more views and relations from the
  conceptual schema.
• A view is conceptually a relation, but the
  records in a view are not stored in the DBMS.
• A user creates any view from data already stored.

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External Schema

• For example we might want to allow students to
  find out the names of faculty members teaching
  courses.
• This is the view associated
• Courseinfo (cidstring, fnamestring)
• A user can treat a view just like a relation and
  ask questions about the records in the view, even
  though the records in the view are not stored
  explicitly.

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Database Management System (DBMS)

• A software package such as Oracle or MS-Access.
• Manages data and relationships in the database.
• Creates a Data Dictionary to store Metadata
  data about data.
• Manages all day-to-day transactions.
• Provides user with data independence at
  application level.
• Transforms logical data requests to match
  physical data structures.
• Secures access through passwords, restricted user
  access, and encryption.
• Provides backup and recovery mechanisms.
• Provides export and import utilities.
• Allows sharing of data with locking capabilities.

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Traditional File Systems
In the the past as new applications were written
they used existing files, or created a new file
for their use. Sometimes several existing files
need to be sorted and merged to obtain the new
file.Thus, it is probable that several files will
contain the same information stored in different
ways. In other words, there will be redundant and
possibly inconsistent data. Consider the files
for an insurance company

POLICY

POLICYHOLDER PREMIUMS
data ADDRESS

PREMIUM-PA
PREMIUM-TOTAL

POLICY
POLICYHOLDER
AGENCY
data ADDRESS
AGENT-CODE

RENEWAL-DATE
RENEWAL-AMT
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Traditional File Systems

• Applications were often considered in relative
  isolation.
• Data that should have been together was not.
• The potential for flexible enquiry and reporting
  was limited.
• All validations were in the programs.
• Procedures were required to for backup and
  recovery.
• All programmers had access to all records.
• There was limited concurrent access.

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Basic Definitions
Database A collection of related data Data
Known facts that can be recorded Schema Some
part of the real world about which data
is stored in the database. Database
Management System(DBMS) A software package to
facilitate the creation and maintenance of a
computerised database.
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Degrees of Data Independence

• Device Characteristics
• Blocking Factors
• Data Access Organisation
• Physical Record Location
• Logical Views (Local)
• Virtual Data Items
• Virtual Records
• Data Value Characteristics
• Data Element Name Only

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Logical vs Physical Data Independence
GLOBAL LOGICAL DATABASE DESCRIPTION

• Application
• Program
• Local Views

Physical Files
Logical Data Independence
Physical Data Independence
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Three Schema Architecture

• ANSI ISO suggest that DBMS should have three
  schemas
• CONCEPTUAL SCHEMA - the global logical model of
  the data and processing of the enterprise. i.e
  community user view.
• EXTERNAL SCHEMA(S) - the logical application
  views of the CS. i.e individual user views.
• INTERNAL SCHEMA - internal level storage view.

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Three Schema Architecture
External Schema 1
External Schema 2
External Schema n
Conceptual Schema
Internal Schema
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The External Level

• Each user has a language through which they
  access or see the database.
• For the programmer - COBOL etc, for the end-user
  a query language or special purpose language.
• All languages will contain a data sub-language
  which may be tightly or loosely coupled to the
  host language.

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• DSLs generally contain a data definition language
  DDL and data manipulation language DML.

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The Conceptual Level

• A representation of the entire information
  content of the database.
• Defined with a Conceptual Schema Language which
  does not represent any storage or access details.
• Should include all security and integrity rules
  and some suggest the CS should describe the total
  enterprise including all allowable processing.

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The Internal Level

• Low level representation of entire database.
• Deals with stored records rather than conceptual
  or external records.
• Stored records may differ in structure from
  conceptual records and external records.
• The Internal Schema is still one level away from
  physical records which are often called pages or
  blocks

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Inter-Related Data
CLAIMS
D B M S
RENEWALS
RENEWALS
AGENCY
CLAIMS
AGENCY
Data related by structure Flexible enquiry easier
QUERY
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Multiple Applications
DATABASE
LOCAL VIEWS
AGENCY
CLAIMS
RENEWALS
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Database Management System (DBMS)

• Collection of interrelated data
• Set of programs to access the data
• DBMS contains information about a particular
  enterprise
• DBMS provides an environment that is both
  convenient and efficient to use.
• Database Applications
• Universities registration, grades
• Banking all transactions
• Sales Airlines reservations, schedules
• customers, products, purchases
• Manufacturing production, inventory, orders,
  supply chain
• Human resources employee records, salaries, tax
  deductions
• Databases touch all aspects of our lives

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Purpose of Database System

• In the early days, database applications were
  built on top of file systems
• Drawbacks of using file systems to store data
• Data redundancy and inconsistency
• Multiple file formats, duplication of information
  in different files
• Difficulty in accessing data
• Need to write a new program to carry out each new
  task
• Data isolation multiple files and formats
• Integrity problems
• Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance gt 0)
  become part of program code
• Hard to add new constraints or change existing
  ones

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Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)

• Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)
• Atomicity of updates
• Failures may leave database in an inconsistent
  state with partial updates carried out
• E.g. transfer of funds from one account to
  another should either complete or not happen at
  all
• Concurrent access by multiple users
• Concurrent accessed needed for performance
• Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to
  inconsistencies
• E.g. two people reading a balance and updating it
  at the same time
• Security problems
• Database systems offer solutions to all the above
  problems

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Levels of Abstraction

• Physical level describes how a record (e.g.,
  customer) is stored.
• Logical level describes data stored in database,
  and the relationships among the data.
• type customer record name
  string street string city
  integer end
• View level application programs hide details of
  data types. Views can also hide information
  (e.g., salary) for security purposes.

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View of Data
An architecture for a database system
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Instances and Schemas

• Similar to types and variables in programming
  languages
• Schema the logical structure of the database
• e.g., the database consists of information about
  a set of customers and accounts and the
  relationship between them)
• Analogous to type information of a variable in a
  program
• Physical schema database design at the physical
  level
• Logical schema database design at the logical
  level
• Instance the actual content of the database at
  a particular point in time
• Analogous to the value of a variable
• Physical Data Independence the ability to
  modify the physical schema without changing the
  logical schema
• Applications depend on the logical schema
• In general, the interfaces between the various
  levels and components should be well defined so
  that changes in some parts do not seriously
  influence others.

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Data Models

• A collection of tools for describing
• data
• data relationships
• data semantics
• data constraints
• Entity-Relationship model
• Relational model
• Other models
• object-oriented model
• semi-structured data models
• Older models network model and hierarchical model

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Entity-Relationship Model

• Example of schema in the entity-relationship model

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Entity Relationship Model (Cont.)

• E-R model of real world
• Entities (objects)
• E.g. customers, accounts, bank branch
• Relationships between entities
• E.g. Account A-101 is held by customer Johnson
• Relationship set depositor associates customers
  with accounts
• Widely used for database design
• Database design in E-R model usually converted to
  design in the relational model (coming up next)
  which is used for storage and processing

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Relational Model

• Example of tabular data in the relational model

Attributes
customer- name
account- number
customer- city
customer- street
Customer-id
192-83-7465 019-28-3746 192-83-7465 321-12-3123
019-28-3746
Johnson Smith Johnson Jones Smith
Alma North Alma Main North
A-101 A-215 A-201 A-217 A-201
Palo Alto Rye Palo Alto Harrison Rye
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A Sample Relational Database
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Data Definition Language (DDL)

• Specification notation for defining the database
  schema
• E.g. create table account (
  account-number char(10), balance
  integer)
• DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in
  a data dictionary
• Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data
  about data)
• database schema
• Data storage and definition language
• language in which the storage structure and
  access methods used by the database system are
  specified
• Usually an extension of the data definition
  language

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)

• Language for accessing and manipulating the data
  organized by the appropriate data model
• DML also known as query language
• Two classes of languages
• Procedural user specifies what data is required
  and how to get those data
• Nonprocedural user specifies what data is
  required without specifying how to get those data
• SQL is the most widely used query language

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SQL

• SQL widely used non-procedural language
• E.g. find the name of the customer with
  customer-id 192-83-7465 select
  customer.customer-name from
  customer where customer.customer-id
  192-83-7465
• E.g. find the balances of all accounts held by
  the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465 select
  account.balance from depositor,
  account where depositor.customer-id
  192-83-7465 and
  depositor.account-number account.account-number
• Application programs generally access databases
  through one of
• Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
• Application program interface (e.g. ODBC/JDBC)
  which allow SQL queries to be sent to a database

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Database Users

• Users are differentiated by the way they expect
  to interact with the system
• Application programmers interact with system
  through DML calls
• Sophisticated users form requests in a database
  query language
• Specialized users write specialized database
  applications that do not fit into the traditional
  data processing framework
• Naïve users invoke one of the permanent
  application programs that have been written
  previously
• E.g. people accessing database over the web, bank
  tellers, clerical staff

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Database Administrator

• Coordinates all the activities of the database
  system the database administrator has a good
  understanding of the enterprises information
  resources and needs.
• Database administrator's duties include
• Schema definition
• Storage structure and access method definition
• Schema and physical organization modification
• Granting user authority to access the database
• Specifying integrity constraints
• Acting as liaison with users
• Monitoring performance and responding to changes
  in requirements

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Transaction Management

• A transaction is a collection of operations that
  performs a single logical function in a database
  application
• Transaction-management component ensures that the
  database remains in a consistent (correct) state
  despite system failures (e.g., power failures and
  operating system crashes) and transaction
  failures.
• Concurrency-control manager controls the
  interaction among the concurrent transactions, to
  ensure the consistency of the database.

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Storage Management

• Storage manager is a program module that provides
  the interface between the low-level data stored
  in the database and the application programs and
  queries submitted to the system.
• The storage manager is responsible to the
  following tasks
• interaction with the file manager
• efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data

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Overall System Structure
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Application Architectures

• Two-tier architecture E.g. client programs
  using ODBC/JDBC to communicate with a
  database
• Three-tier architecture E.g. web-based
  applications, and applications built using
  middleware