EDU 2462

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EDU 2462 Biophysical Foundations of Human
Movement 1
Photos www.maranathacamp.org/
Lecture 3 MOTOR LEARNING SKILL ACQUISITION
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SKILL v A SKILL

• SKILL the learned ability to bring about
  certain pre-determined results with maximum
  certainty and a minimum outlay of time, energy or
  both

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• A SKILL an organised coordinated activity in
  relation to an object or situation which requires
  a whole chain of sensory, central and motor
  mechanisms.
• SENSORY? CENTRAL ? MOTOR Hear
  Decision is Movement See ? made
  ? executed
• Touch
• eg. eg. eg.
• See ball Decision made to Move
  to
• thrown catch in left
  catch in
• towards hand left hand
• you

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Classifications of Motor Skills

• 1. Precision of Movement

Gross Motor Skill whole body movement
Intermediate Motor Skill limbs
Fine Motor Skill
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• 2. Distinctiveness of beginning end points

Discrete Motor Skill clear start distinct end
Serial Motor Skill series of discrete movements
put into sequence
Continuous Motor Skill a continuous movement
only stopped by self or circumstances
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3. Stability of Environment (degree of
self-pacing)
Open environment externally paced
unpredictable
The stimulus waits to be acted upon by the
performer (start when ready). Technique is a
key factor.
Closed environment self-paced predictable
A forced-pace task! The performer must adapt to
the unpredictable environment
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4. Attentional Focus Required
Broad-External
Broad-Internal Used to rapidly assess a
situation Used to analyse and plan (eg. a
football quarterback (eg.
developing a game plan or assesses the
positioning of the strategy) defensive
backs)
Narrow-External
Narrow-Internal Used to focus
exclusively on 1-2 Used to mentally
rehearse an external cues (e.g., the ball)
upcoming performance or control
an emotional state (eg. mentally
rehearse golf putting or taking a breath to
relax)

Several types of attentional focus are
appropriate for specific sport skills
activities.
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5. Closed-Loop or Open-Loop Motor Skills

• Motor skills are closed-loop or open-loop
  depending on whether students receive performance
  sensory feedback in time to adjust.
• Closed-loop motor skills return
• students' sensory
• feedback in time to adjust.
• Baseball fielding is a closed-loop motor skill.
• Open-loop motor skills do not return
• performance sensory feedback in time to adjust.
  Pitching is an open-loop motor skill.

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PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT

• Measured in 3 categories
• TIME
• completion time (eg. run 1500m 50 sit-ups)
• reaction time (how long for a goalkeeper to move
  once penalty kick taken)
• ERROR
• - number of errors (eg. How many missed serves?)
• amount of error (eg. How far off target?)
• number of successful attempts (eg. How many
  pitches in strike zone?)
• MAGNITUDE
• height (high jump)
• distance (javelin)
• weight (weight lifting)
• number of responses (How many rebounds?)

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STAGES OF LEARNING A SKILL

• Fitts and Posner's Three-Stage Model
  (1967)Stage 1 Cognitive stage
• large number of performance errors
• errors usually big ones
• unaware they are making mistakes
• (unconscious incompetence)
• OR
• recognises there is a problem but unsure of what
• it is or how to fix it (conscious
  incompetence)
• highly variable performance

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• Stage 2 Associative stage
• not as many errors and are smaller
• more concentration on refining the skill
• able to identify some errors in own performance
• (consciously competent)
• variability in performance between one attempt
  and another decreases
• Stage 3 Autonomous stage
• skill has become almost automatic
• most of the performance does not require much
  thought (unconsciously competent)
• allows more focus on critical parts of the skill
  or factors which may affect optimal performance
• able to detect errors and adapt performance
  accordingly

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Implications for instructors

• During the associative stage, the instructors
  role is
• to devise meaningful practice routines involving
  temporal patterning of the sub-routines eg. When
  to breathe in butterfly
• to provide appropriate feedback
• a) receptor and perceptual mechanisms ? demos
  used to smooth, refine and point out error in
  performance
• b) auditory cues ? listening to sound of ball
  leads to temporal patterning (eg. hear different
  sound when you hit sweet spot)
• c) visual ? videotapes good for correction
  purposes
• - to develop their observation skills
• - to study biomechanical principles and movement
  patterns
• - to learn the skill themselves ? increase
  empathy and appreciate temporal qualities
• - to utilise an executive plan (overall picture
  of the skill) as a standard for performance to be
  measured against.

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Information Processing- A Basic Model
lets you know whether you've learned.
the information you get through your five senses
taste, touch, sight, sound, smell.
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the work you have to do to understand and store
information
FEEDBACK LOOP
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SHORT-TERM OR WORKING MEMORY STORAGE
SENSORY INPUT
LONG-TERM MEMORY
REHEARSAL
files and stores unlimited amounts of information
in clusters and schemas.
a temporary storage area.
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RETRIEVAL
the process of finding and bringing information
from long-term memory
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Memory Systems

• Working/ Short-term memory(WM)
• short-term sensory storage
• short-term information storage
• short-term operational storage
• Long-term Memory(LTM)
• 3 systems
• Procedural - How to do
• Semantic - What to do (facts, general
  knowledge)
• Episodic - personal experiences at a particular
  time (sensory eg. An odour triggers memory)
• Processing of info in working memory-
• 1) used to accomplish goal at hand
• 2) prepares info for storage in long-term memory

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• Transfer of Learning
• Influence of a previously practiced skill on the
  learning of a new skill
• Types of transfer
• Positive transfer--the previously learned
• skill facilitates the learning of a new skill
• eg. Gymnastics to aerial skiing
• Negative transfer--the previously
• learned skill hinders the learning of a new skill
  
• eg. Tennis (elbow/shoulder) to squash (wrist)
• Amount of transfer is generally small and
  positive (10 - 30 )
• Teaching for positive transfer is an important
  goal in most instructional settings

Other examples of positive and negative
transfer???
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Forgetting

• 3 ways people forget things
• 1. Trace Decay
• time alone can cause a WM to be forgotten
• inability to retrieve/gain access to stored info
  accounts for forgetting in LTM
• 2. Interference
• a) Pro-Active Interference
• related to forgetting kinaesthetic info
• Skill learned before interferes with the learning
  of a new skill
• occurs when similarity between what is
• to be learned and the interference leads to
• confusion

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• b) Retroactive Interference
• skill learned after a new skill interferes with
  the recall of the new skill
• occurs if interference activity is
  attention-demanding of person
• another motor activity (esp. if similar to the
  skill trying to be remembered) provides more
  interference than a verbal activity.
• eg. Dont show students all 3 methods of changing
  a relay baton at one time and then ask for them
  to Show me the first method.
• Similarity leads to confusion
• 3. Inappropriate Retrieval Cues
• Information is there, just not able to bring it
  forward
• source of trigger to help find a specific piece
  of info in LTM not correct
• (eg. Trivial Pursuit syndrome - I know this!
  I know this!Aagh! I give up. Whats the
  answer?)

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• Implications for instructors
• practise movement ASAP after demonstration
• dont show alternatives until learners are
  confident with first method
• continuous motor skills better
• remembered over a long period
• than discrete skills
• ? discrete tasks have high
• cognitive/verbal component

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Influences on Remembering

• Key Terms
• Coding - organization of stimulus input into
  an acceptable form for storage
• Encoding - transforming of info to be
  remembered into a form that can be stored in
  memory
• SENSATION PERCEPTION DECISION-
• electrical impulses memory
  MAKING
• nervous system (eg. recognition of words)
• Storage - process of placing info into LTM
• Rehearsal - process enabling transfer of info
  from working memory to LTM
• Retrieval - search through LTM for info needed
  for task at hand.

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Influences on Remembering

• Type of Movement/Movement Characteristics
• Movement information has many aspects (both
  temporal and spatial
• Location (stored in brain)
• eg. initiated where?
• Golf Swing finished where?
• hit ball where?
• - Distance (stored in proprioceptors)
• eg. Squash serve how long is the
  movement?
• get the feel of the movement?
• - velocity, force, direction etc.

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• Implications for instructors
• critical location points within own body space
  better coded than distance information
• location points associated with well-known object
  aids recall eg. clock face
• the more meaningful the movement, the easier it
  is to remember (the learner will learn when)
• self-generated movements (something youve made
  up) are better recalled eg. own dance sequence

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• Processing Information
• It takes a 5 yr old 3 times as long as 17 yr. old
  to process 1 piece of info
• Greatest improvements in processing speed and
  movement time occurs between 6-12 years old.
• Short-term memory...
• Recall improves between 3-7 years (able to
  encode better) and continues to improve through
  to adulthood - mature by 13 years.
• Long-term memory
• Encoding recording ability difficult before 8
  yrs.
• (acceptable form for storage)
• Rehearsal
• Starts 5-6 years
• Refined 10 years
• Grouping
• difficult before 10 years.

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Influences on Remembering

• Rehearsal Strategies
• a)Rote Repetition
• drill-like repetition of movement
• very practical and effective esp. for closed
  skill
• b) Verbal Labels
• attaching useful verbal labels/cues to movement
  to assist recall (eg. i before e except
  after c)
• c) Imagery
• developing picture in mind of what complete
  movement is like
• d) Intention to Remember
• concentration is better from the start if learner
  aware, for example, that therell be a test at
  the end.

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Implications for instructors

• Organisation
• group and categorise information into component
  parts and chunks so the beginner thinks of
  complex movements as having many parts. As skill
  increases, the number of parts decreases in the
  learners mind.

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• ? when teaching...
• avoid breaking skills down into too many parts
  and keep related parts together
• the more your assessment context is similar to
  your practice context (and vice versa), the
  better the retention will be (Play the way you
  practise and practise the way you want to play!)
• closed skills - practice should resemble
  game conditions
• open skills - variety of practice
  contexts needed
• eg. drillified
• re-emphasise middle section of skill
• ie. prime-time principle

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Feedback

• Key Terms
• Intrinsic - belongs to the task itself
• eg. Shooting a goal in/out of basket?
• Extrinsic - coming from another person/source
• eg. Coach/video/teammates/spectators
• Concurrent - feedback becomes available during
  performance eg. Coach calls instructions
• Terminal - feedback comes after movement is
  finished eg. Ball goes into goal.
• Immediate - feedback comes straight away movement
  is finished eg. Cricket - He didnt even move!
• Delayed - period of time between movements
  completion and feedback eg. Skaters waiting for
  judges marks.

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• KR (Knowledge of Results)
• student knows outcome of response
• was goal achieved?
• KP (Knowledge of Performance)
• characteristics of response to movement
• eg. Lifted head to soon etc.
• ? Total Knowledge of Results (KR)
• kr KP
• (performance (movement knowledge)
• outcome)

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FEEDBACK
Type of Feedback
Knowledge of Results
Sensory
Persons own sensory system
Someone/thing external to person
Source
What happened?
1. The outcome of the response and/or 2. What
performance characteristics led to the outcome of
the response?
Type of Information
What did I do?
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• Knowledge of Results has 3 roles
• error correction information
• motivation
• reinforcement
• KR
• is a learning variable a teacher can directly
  manipulate
• can lead to more efficient error correction by
  the learner

It is very important to provide KR following
practice!!
Practising with KR may help formation of model
performance or setting standards for the skill.
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• 2 types of KR
• qualitative - right/wrong
• quantitative - shorter/longer

Error Info eg. Was the ball hit too soon?
PLAN
ERROR INFO
ACTION
DISCREPANCY INFO
Discrepancy Info - The gap between the plan and
your action eg. ball hit too far ? find the
cause, plan to counter then proceed with new
action...
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• Implications for instructors
• Early theorising about KR explored rewards
• and punishment. However, research has
• shown that error information is more important
• than rewards or punishment.
• Of course, learning that you made an error, may
• be interpreted as punishment by many people.
• "The data from KR research suggest that subjects
  tend to change their behaviour when they are
  provided error information. When this information
  is not presented, they tend to repeat their
  original behaviourWhen large errors result,
  subjects tend to make larger changes in their
  behaviour than when smaller errors are observed."
  
• Shea, C, Shebilske, W and Worchel, S
  (1993) Motor Learning and Control p.210

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• While KR improves motor learning, too much KR
  may have a
• detrimental effect on retention.
• ? dependence on KR, using it to guide
  performance.
• ? may ignore other sources of information.
• Ideal is to do some trials with KR and some
  without.
• eg. One study compared 100 KR (results presented
  for every trial)
• with 33 KR (results shown only for every third
  trial). The 100 KR
• group performed better during the trials, but two
  days later the 33
• KR group performed better, indicating better
  retention of the motor skill.
• (Shea, 1993, p.214)

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• Bandwidth of KR schedule - large errors are
  displayed, but small errors are not displayed.
• Prevents a tendency for overcorrection of small,
  inconsequential errors, leading to larger errors
  on the next trial. These are called maladaptive
  short-term corrections.
• In most sports, KR is immediate -- you see if you
  threw the ball in the basket.
• In some sports, such as diving, KR is delayed a
  minute or so while the judges make decisions.
  This KR delay interval degrades learning,
  although how much is not firmly-established

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• Further Reading and References...
• http//teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/info
  proc.html
• - Information Processing
• http//www.eas.ualberta.ca/elj/als/alswp6.html
• - article from Leisure Studies Academy The
  State of Childrens Play
• http//www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/coachsci/vol31/fe
  edbac2.htm
• - article re feedback reinforcement
• http//www.casafuturatech.com/Book/Science/motor
  .html
• - excellent overview of motor development
• theory using the context of stuttering.