Research Hypotheses and Questions

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Research Hypotheses and Questions
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Research Hypotheses and Questions

• Research hypotheses
• Directional
• Is a prediction of a study outcome.
• First grade girls will perform better on a
  reading comprehension test than first grade boys.
• Children shown an adult interacting aggressively
  towards a doll will engage in more violent acts
  than children who observe an adult interact
  non-aggressively with the same doll.

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Research Hypotheses and Questions (cont.)

• Non-directional
• Girls will score differently than boys on a
  measure of self esteem.
• The reading achievement of students exposed to
  phonics instruction will differ from students
  exposed to whole language instruction.

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Research Hypotheses and Questions

• Research Question
• Differ from hypotheses by the generality of the
  question.
• How do students perceive the new curriculum?
• How do students of minority groups interpret that
  way they are represented in the media?

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Variables
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Measurement

• Is the assignment of numerals to objects.
• Nominal
• Examples Gender, party affiliation, and place of
  birth
• Ordinal
• Examples SES, Student rank, and Place in race
• Interval
• Examples Test scores, personality and attitude
  scales.
• Ratio
• Examples Weight, length, reaction time, and
  number of responses

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Understanding Variables and Hypotheses

• Objects
• Things that one does research on.
• People, districts, nations, etc.
• Properties of objects
• Give us a way to talk about how objects are alike
  and how they differ.
• Scores
• Values on the property of interest
• Must be at least two.

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Values

• Exhaustive
• Must be able to assign a value to all objects.
• Mutually Exclusive
• Each object can only be assigned one of a set of
  values.
• A variable with only one value is not a variable.
• It is a constant.

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How variables are used

• Two major piles
• Descriptive and causal
• Descriptive
• Describes a population in relation to one or more
  variables.
• Sex bias in textbooks
• Trends in dropout rates
• Causal
• Does A cause B
• Associations between A and B
• Is the observed relationship greater than would
  be expected by chance?

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Hypothesis

• A proposed explanation for a phenomenon.
• Two types
• Casual order - 'A causes B'
• Empirical generalizations A is related to B

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Sorting Out Variables in a Study

• Purpose of most empirical studies in behavioral
  research is to identify causal relationships.
• Independent variables (IV)
• Causes, determinants, predictors, factors.
• Dependent variables (DV)
• Consequences, outcomes, effects

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Dissecting Hypotheses

• Identify the two variables and sort them into IV
  and DV.
• Describe each variable.
• Object, property, mode of variation, elaborate on
  mode of variation.
• Specify the relationship expected between the two
  variables.
• Note the unit of analysis implied or actually
  used.

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Additional comments

• Simple Hypotheses have only two
  variables--bivariate relations.
• H.1 Authoritarian principals are more effective
  than non-authoritarian principals
• What are the names of the two variables?
• How do they vary?
• Complex Hypotheses have more than two variables
• H.1 Authoritarian principals are more effective
  than non-authoritarian principals when goals are
  clear, but non-authoritarian principals are more
  effective when goals are ambiguous.
• What are the names of the three variables?
• How do they vary?

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Practice

• H.1 The greater the weight of a five-year old,
  the taller the child.
• What is the object?
• What are the variables?
• What are the names of the variables?
• How do they vary-categorical or continuous?
• What is the independent variable?
• What is the dependent variable?

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Practice

• H.2 Authoritarian principals command more
  loyalty than non-authoritarian ones when they
  have influence, but non-authoritarian principals
  command greater loyalty when principals lack
  influence.
• What is the object?
• What are the variables?
• What are the names of the variables?
• How do they vary-categorical or continuous?
• What is the independent variable?
• What is the dependent variable?

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• H.3. Secondary teachers are more custodial in
  pupil control ideology than elementary teachers.
• What is the object?
• What are the variables?
• What are the names of the variables?
• How do they vary-categorical or continuous?
• What is the independent variable?
• What is the dependent variable?

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• H. 4. Academic achievement will be greater among
  students taught by autocratic teachers than those
  taught by permissive teachers.
• What is the object?
• What are the variables?
• What are the names of the variables?
• How do they vary-categorical or continuous?
• What is the independent variable?
• What is the dependent variable?

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The Ethics of Using Human Participants
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• Ethics
• the rules of conduct recognized in respect to a
  particular class of human actions or a particular
  group, culture, etc.
• the principles of conduct governing an individual
  or a profession

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Ethical Issues

• A questionnaire on alcohol use seeks information
  about growing up in an alcoholic family.
• Students in an intro psychology class get extra
  credit for completing a survey.
• Respondents to a survey are offered monetary
  compensation for completing the survey.
• A questionnaire on workplace stress asks teachers
  how often they drink alcohol.

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The History of Human Participants Ethics

• The Need for Action
• Nazi Doctors
• The Nuremburg Code (1949).
• The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (1930 1972)
• The Milgram Study (1961-1962)

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Milgram Experiment

• Social scientists wanted to know how people like
  Hitler and Mussolini were able to get soldiers
  and citizens to do terrible things.
• Participants were led to believe they were part
  of a teaching and memory study in which they
  would shock another person (the student) if he
  could not remember a word correctly.
• Participants were told to continue by
  experimenter (the scientist) even if the
  student protested in pain.

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Milgram (cont.)

• Based on this research, we found out the people
  will often follow authority figures to extremes.
  In fact 2/3 of the subjects were willing to shock
  the student to the maximum, dangerous level.
• Participants were most likely to go all the way
  when the scientist was wearing a lab coat and
  had a clipboard, he deferred the responsibility
  to science, and the student was out of view
• In order to discover this knowledge however,
  researchers produced extreme anxiety in
  participants.
• Was it worth it?

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1974

• The Belmont Report
• Respect for Persons
• Beneficence
• Justice
• The National Research Act
• Research plans must be approved
• Do no harm (physically or mentally)
• Informed Consent
• The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
  (The Buckley Amendment)
• Confidentiality of Data
• Legitimate Educational Interest

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Question

• Any sort of study that is likely to cause
  lasting, or even serious harm or discomfort to
  any participant should not be conducted, unless
  the research has the potential to provide
  information of extreme benefit to humans
• Would you agree? If so, why? What might be an
  example of such information?

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Blue Eyes, Brown Eyes

• 1968 - Jane Elliot, grade school teacher in Iowa
  conducted a classroom experiment to test whether
  racism was a learned characteristic
• Blue Eyes, Brown Eyes - an experiment to create
  racism
• Jane Elliot divided her 4th grade class into two
  groups based on eye color
• The Brown eyed group were told they were superior
  due to the amount of melanin, a color-causing
  chemical in their blood.
• Were told the blue eyed group were stupid, lazy
  and not to be trusted
• Blue eyed group were given strips of cloth to be
  worn around their necks for easy identification

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Blue Eyes, Brown Eyes

• Blue Eyed Group
• Were not allowed to drink directly from water
  fountains
• Werent allowed second helpings at lunch
• Were given shorter recess

• Brown Eyed Group
• Were allowed to boss the blue eyed group
• Could have second helpings at lunch
• Were given a longer recess

What do you think happened?
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Blue Eyes, Brown Eyes

• Results Blue Eyed Group
• Those of the "inferior" color exhibited negative
  feelings of self-loathing and fear

• Results Brown Eyed Group
• Students of the "superior" color began to oppress
  those of the "inferior" color

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Blue Eyes, Brown Eyes

• Jane Elliot concluded from the experiment that
  racism is indeed a learned characteristic
• She went on to replicate the experiment with
  similar results
• Ethical Question
• Does what was learned from the experiment justify
  the psychological trauma experienced by some of
  the students?

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Informed Consent

• Participant must be aware of what they will be
  asked to do in the study.
• Participant must freely choose to participate.
  (participants are given explicit assurances of
  the voluntary nature of their involvement)
• Consent must come from guardian for minors and
  those with diminished capacity. They themselves
  should give assent.

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Informed Consent

• Participants are free to withdraw at any time.
• Information should be given in language the
  participant can understand.
• The information should help them decide whether
  to participate.
• Information must include risks and benefits.

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Consent vs. Assent

• Take a look at the consent and assent forms.
• How do they differ?
• As a parent would you give your consent?
• Why or why not?

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Research With Children

• Studies using children as participants present
  some special issues for researchers.
• The young are more vulnerable, have fewer legal
  rights, and may not understand the language of
  informed consent.
• The following guidelines below need to be
  considered
• Informed consent of the parents or guardians is
  required regarding the use of minors as subjects
• Researchers do not present themselves as
  diagnosticians or counselors in reporting results
  to parents, nor do they report information given
  by children in confidence
• Children may never be coerced into participation
  in any study
• Any form of remuneration for the childs services
  does not affect the application of these ethical
  principles

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Case Study

• Surveyed Asian and Pacific Islander high school
  students
• regarding their sexual practices. Individuals
  unaffiliated with
• school proctored the survey. The school district
  notified
• parents of the survey and gave them the
  opportunity to sign
• a form denying permission for their children to
  participate.
• Students could also decline participation, and
  the names of
• the students completing the survey were not
  recorded.
• Respondents were instructed to skip items they
  preferred
• not to answer.
• What aspects of the study cause concern?

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Question

• Identify and Discuss a research study that would
  present ethical problems if done with children
  but not if done with adults.

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Confidentiality

• Personally identifying information will be
  minimized
• Access to data and all records will be restricted
  to those with Legitimate Interest
• Anonymous vs. Confidential Participation

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Three Levels of IRB Review

• Exempted Review
• Secondary Data
• Surveys, Interviews, Public Observations,
  Educational Tests
• Educational Settings
• Expedited Review
• Studies involving minimal risk
• Studies involving children, prisoners, pregnant
  women, mentally disabled, in-vitro fertilization,
  other vulnerable populations
• blood samples, other biological specimens
  collected without invasion
• collection of data from voice, video, digital,
  or image recordings made for research purposes
• Full Review
• ALL RESEARCH SHOULD BE REVIEWED.

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Question

• Sometimes the design of a study makes necessary
  the use of concealment or deception.
• Discuss how you feel about using concealment
  and/or deception.
• Can you suggest a circumstance when deception
  might be justified?

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Deception in Research

• Psychologists do not conduct a study involving
  deception unless they have determined that the
  use of deceptive techniques is justified by the
  studys value and that equally effective
  alternative procedures are not feasible
• Never deceive participants about significant
  aspects that would affect their willingness to
  participate, such as physical risks, discomfort,
  or unpleasant emotional experience.
• Any deception used must be explained to
  participants as early as is feasible, preferably
  at the end of participation, but no later than
  the conclusion of the research

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Debriefing

• Provide prompt opportunity for participants to
  obtain appropriate info about the nature,
  results, and conclusion
• Correct any misconceptions
• If a delay is justified reduce the risk of harm
• The psychologist must take reasonable measures to
  honor all commitments made to research
  participants
• the experimenter is duty-bound to make certain
  that the debriefing returns them to their
  "pre-experimental state."

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Question

• Are there any research questions that should not
  be investigated in schools? If so, give an
  example and explain why you feel it is
  inappropriate.

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Havasupai Issue

• What happened to the Havasupai?
• Why are the questions the researchers asked
  offensive to some Havasupai?
• Do you think the researchers behaved in an
  ethical manner?
• What are the future consequences of the
  researchers actions?

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Questions

• Suppose a researcher wants to keep a class of
  third-grade children in from recess to administer
  and attitude-towards-school scale. The purpose is
  to help teachers understand their students
  attitudes and how they might affect students
  achievements.
• Is there a potential for harm in this case?
• Would it be wise to seek informed consent from
  parents?
• Why? Why not?

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• A researcher interviewed adolescents on their
  possible us of marijuana (with their informed
  consent). During the course of the interviews,
  some participants named other individuals who use
  marijuana but had not provided informed consent.
• Does this raise ethical concerns?
• What, if anything, can the researcher do to
  protect the other individuals?

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• Suppose one of your instructors asked you to be a
  participant in a research project but did not
  tell you the purpose of the research.
• Would you ask for information on these points
  before deciding whether to participate?
• Would you feel pressured to participate?