Instructional Technology

1
Instructional Technology

• Foundation, Framework Philosophy

2
Contents

• Psychological Foundations
• Learning Environments
• Learner Motivation
• Philosophical Beliefs

3
Psychological Foundations

• What is Learning Theory?
• According to Driscoll (2000), learning theory
  comprises of a set of constructs linking
  observed changes in performance with what is
  thought to bring about those changes (p. 11)
• Example of a construct Memory

Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning
for instruction (2nd ed). Needham Heights, MA
Allyn and Bacon.
4
Learning Theories

• COGNITION
• COGNITIVE APPRENTISHIP
• GAGNES THEORY OF INSTRUCTION
• CONSTRUCTIVISM

5
Cognition

• Cognition is the study of mind and intelligence,
  embracing philosophy, psychology, artificial
  intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and
  anthropology

Cognitive Science. (2005). Stanford encyclopedia
of philosophy. Retrieved September 12, 2005,
from http//plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-
science/
6
Cognition Theorists

• Jerome Bruner
• Howard Gardner
• Jean Piaget
• Lev Vygotsky

7
Jerome Bruner

• Learning is an active process in which students
  construct new ideas or concepts based on their
  current knowledge

Jerome Bruner. (2005). The PSI Café. Retrieved
September 12, 2005, from http//www.psy.pdx.edu/P
siCafe/KeyTheorists/Bruner.htm
8
Howard Gardner

• Theory of Multiple Intelligence
• Howard Gardner proposes that there is not a
  single Intelligence," but rather that there are
  seven
• Visual / Spatial Intelligence
• Musical Intelligence
• Verbal Intelligence
• Logical/Mathematical Intelligence
• Interpersonal Intelligence
• Intrapersonal Intelligence
• Bodily / Kinesthetic Intelligence

Howard Gardners Multiple Intelligence Theory.
(2005). Retrieved September 13, 2005, from Penn
State University website http//www.ed.psu.edu/i
nsys/ESD/gardner/MItheory.html
9
Jean Piaget

• Theorized that cognitive development proceeds in
  four genetically determined stages that always
  follow the same sequential order.
• Sensorimotor (birth to approx. 2 years)
• Preoperational (2 to 7 years)
• Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years)
• Formal Operations (11 years onward)

Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning
for instruction (2nd ed). Needham Heights, MA
Allyn and Bacon.
10
Lev Vygotsky

• Socio-cultural theory of learning emphasizes that
  human intelligence originates in our society or
  culture, and individual cognitive gain occurs
  first through interpersonal (interaction with
  social environment) than intrapersonal
  (internalization).

CSCL Theories. (2005). Retrieved September 12,
2005, from http//www.edb.utexas.edu/csclstudent/
Dhsiao/theories.htmlvygot
11
COGNITIVE APPRENTISHIP

• Permits peers to learn through their
  interactions, to build stories about common
  experiences, and to share the knowledge building
  experiences with the group
• core characteristics
• heuristic content
• situated learning
• Modeling
• Coaching
• Articulation
• Reflection
• exploration

Wilson, B., Cole, P. (1994). An
instructional-design review of cognitive teaching
models. Paper presented at the meeting of the
American Educational ResearchAssociation,
Chicago, IL.
12
GAGNES THEORY OF INSTRUCTION

• Conditions of Learning
• Effective instruction should reach beyond
  traditional learning theories. 
• Cumulative teaching transitions from simple to
  complex skills within a hierarchical framework. 

Robert Gagne. (2005). Encyclopedia of educational
technology. Retrieved September 13, 2005, from
http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/gagnesevents/inde
x.htm
13
Gagnes Nine Events of Instruction

• gaining attention (reception)
• informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
• stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
• presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
• providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
• eliciting performance (responding)
• providing feedback (reinforcement)
• assessing performance (retrieval)
• enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
  

Robert Gagne. (2005). Encyclopedia of educational
technology. Retrieved September 13, 2005, from
http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/gagnesevents/inde
x.htm
14
CONSTRUCTIVISM

• A teaching and learning approach that encourages
  and allows students to build on prior knowledge
  while challenging their misconceptions through
  experience.
• Constructivist approach to learning emphasizes
  authentic, challenging projects that include
  students, teachers and experts in the learning
  community.
• Student-centered learning environment

Constructivism. (2005). Retrieved September 13,
2005, from The University of Massachusetts at
Amherst website http//www-unix.oit.umass.edu/
afeldman/defcon.html
15
Learning Environments

• Constructivist Theory
• Schema Theory
• Social Learning Theory
• Discovery Learning

16
Constructivist Theory

• A learning environment designed to promote
  individual construction of knowledge
• Knowledge-building tools are provided
• Learners are active and control their own
  learning process
• Learners create artifacts that reflect their
  learning
• Artifacts are shared and reflected on to extend
  understanding
• Learning is authentic

Reiser, R., Dempsey, J. (2002) Instructional
design and technology. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey Prentice Hall
17
Schema Theory

• All human beings possess categorical rules or
  scripts that they use to interpret the world. New
  information is processed according to how it fits
  into these rules, called schema. These schema can
  be used not only to interpret but also to predict
  situation occurring in our environment.
• The learner in schema theory actively builds
  schema and revises them in light on new
  information

Widmayer , S. (2005). Schema theory An
introduction. Retrieved September 13, 2005,
from http//chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgeba
se/strategies/cognitivism/SchemaTheory.htm
18
Schema New Information

• There are three different reactions that a
  learner can have to new information
• Accretation is when learners take the new input
  and assimilate it into their existing schema
  without making any changes to the overall schema.
  
• Tuning is when learners realize that their
  existing schema is inadequate for the new
  knowledge and modify their existing schema
  accordingly.
• Restructuring is the process of creating a new
  schema addressing the inconsistencies between the
  old schema and the newly acquired information.

Meaningful Reception Learning Schema Theory.
(2005). Retrieved September 13, 2005, from
Indiana University website http//education.indi
ana.edu/p540/webcourse/schema.htmltop/
19
Social Learning Theory

• Behavior is often modeled after things that have
  been experienced by the individual
• The social learning theory is the behavior theory
  most relevant to criminology.

Isom, M. (1998). Retrieved September 13, 2005,
from FSU College of Criminology and Criminal
Justice website http//www.criminology.fsu.edu/c
rimtheory/bandura.htm
20
Albert Bandura

• He believed aggression reinforced by family
  members was the most prominent source of behavior
  modeling
• He believed that individuals, especially
  children, learn aggressive responses from
  observing others, either personally or through
  the media or environment
• Developed steps for successful Modeling

Isom, M. (1998). Retrieved September 13, 2005,
from FSU College of Criminology and Criminal
Justice website http//www.criminology.fsu.edu/c
rimtheory/bandura.htm
21
Modeling Process

• Attention - If you are going to learn anything,
  you have to be paying attention.
• Retention - You must be able to retain --
  remember -- what you have paid attention to.
• Reproduction  - You have to translate the images
  or descriptions into actual behavior.
• Motivation - You must have some reason for doing
  it

Boree, G. (2005). Personality theories. Retrieved
September 13, 2005, from http//www.ship.edu/cgb
oeree/bandura.html
22
Discovery Learning

• Students interact with their environment by
  exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling
  with questions and controversies, or performing
  experiments.
• Students are more likely to remember concepts
  they discover on their own.

Conway, J. (1997). Educational technology's
effect on models of instruction. Retrieved
September 13, 2005, from http//copland.udel.edu/
jconway/EDST666.htmdislrn
23
Learner Motivation

• A persons desire to pursue a goal or perform a
  task, which is manifested by choice of goals and
  effort in pursuing the goal.

Reiser, R., Dempsey, J. (2002) Instructional
design and technology. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey Prentice Hall.
24
Kellers ARCS

• Used to explain phenomena associated with student
  motivation
• Explains what people will do rather then what
  they can do

Keller, J. M., (1983). Development and use of the
ARCS model of motivational design. Enschede,
Netherlands Twente Univ. of Technology. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 313 001) 
25
Factors that Influence Teaching and Learning

• Attention Refers to weather a students
  interest is gained and maintained during
  instruction.
• Relevance Whether a student perceives
  instruction as fulfilling as personal need.
• Confidence Whether a student expects to fail or
  succeed at a certain task.
• Satisfaction Rewards students receive from
  instructional or educational activity.

Barba, R. (1998). Kellers ARCS models. Retrieved
September 13, 2005, from http//www2.sjsu.edu/dep
ts/it/edit186/karcs/sld003.html
26
Motivational Strategies - Attention

• Perceptual Arousal provide novelty, surprise,
  incongruity or uncertainty.
• Inquiry Arousal stimulate curiosity by posing
  questions or problems to solve.
• Variability incorporate a range of methods and
  media to meet students' varying needs.

Small, R.V. (1997). Motivation in instructional
design. Retrieved September 13, 2005, from
http//www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/motivation.htm
27
Motivational Strategies - Relevance

• Goal Orientation present the objectives and
  useful purpose of the instruction and specific
  methods for successful achievement.
• Motive Matching match objectives to student
  needs and motives.
• Familiarity present content in ways that are
  understandable and that are related to the
  learners' experience and values.

Small, R.V. (1997). Motivation in instructional
design. ERIC Digest. ED 407 930. Retrieved
September 13, 2005, from http//www.ericdigests.or
g/1998-1/ motivation.htm
28
Motivational Strategies - Confidence

• Learning Requirements inform students about
  learning and performance requirements and
  assessment criteria.
• Success Opportunities provide challenging and
  meaningful opportunities for successful learning.
• Personal Responsibility link learning success to
  students' personal effort and ability.

Small, R.V. (1997). Motivation in instructional
design. ERIC Digest. ED 407 930. Retrieved
September 13, 2005, from http//www.ericdigests.or
g/1998-1/ motivation.htm
29
Motivational Strategies - Satisfaction

• Intrinsic Reinforcement encourage and support
  intrinsic enjoyment of the learning experience.
• Extrinsic Rewards provide positive reinforcement
  and motivational feedback.
• Equity maintain consistent standards and
  consequences for success.

Small, R.V. (1997). Motivation in instructional
design. ERIC Digest. ED 407 930. Retrieved
September 13, 2005, from http//www.ericdigests.or
g/1998-1/ motivation.htm
30
Strengths of ARCS

• Strengths
• Prescriptive - active and prescribes what should
  be done
• How to - not just theory with ill-defined
  application
• Motivational model reinforces instructional
  models for learner centered design
• Application of ARCS model improves motivation for
  repetitive and other intrinsically uninteresting
  material
• Forces more thorough evaluation of the audience's
  characteristics resulting in complementing more
  effective instructional strategies

Awoniyi, LeJeune, Mostek, Muller Rundle (1997).
Strengths and weaknesses of ARCS model. Retrieved
September 12, 2005, from http//ouray.cudenver.ed
u/nflejeun/doctoralweb/Courses/IT5110_Instruction
al_Dev/ARCS/critique.html
31
Weakness of ARCS

• Weaknesses
• Affective outcomes are difficult to
  quantitatively evaluate
• Continuous evolution of the model makes
  evaluation difficult

Awoniyi, LeJeune, Mostek, Muller Rundle (1997).
Strengths and weaknesses of ARCS model. Retrieved
September 12, 2005, from http//ouray.cudenver.ed
u/nflejeun/doctoralweb/Courses/IT5110_Instruction
al_Dev/ARCS/critique.html
32
Philosophical Beliefs

• My personal philosophy is based several ideas.
• First, I believe many of the things associated
  with constructivism. I believe knowledge is a
  process and it is constructed through our
  experiences and learning is most effected by
  creating a real-world environment where learning
  is relevant. Learning should be authentic.

33

• Second, collaborative learning gives students
  enormous advantages not available from more
  traditional instruction because a group can
  accomplish meaningful learning and solve problems
  better than any individual. In saying this, I
  like the theory of Cognitive Apprenticeship. The
  aspects that appeal to me are coaching, modeling
  and reflection.

34

• Third, although I have never witnessed this type
  of learning in a classroom environment, I am
  intrigued by Discover Learning. I agree with the
  idea that you are more likely to learn what you
  discover.

35

• In conclusion, one element seems to pull all
  these areas together, they are all
  learner-centered. I think this promotes a
  flexible and adaptable environment in which
  learning can be maximized.

36
References

• Awoniyi, LeJeune, Mostek, Muller Rundle (1997).
  Strengths and weaknesses of ARCS model. Retrieved
  September 12, 2005, from http//ouray.cudenver.edu
  /nflejeun/doctoralweb/Courses/IT5110_Instructiona
  l_Dev/ARCS/critique.html
• Barba, R. (1998). Kellers ARCS models. Retrieved
  September 13, 2005, from http//www2.sjsu.edu/dept
  s/it/edit186/karcs/sld003.html
• Boree, G. (2005). Personality theories. Retrieved
  September 13, 2005, from http//www.ship.edu/cgbo
  eree/bandura.html
• Cognitive Science. (2005). Stanford encyclopedia
  of philosophy. Retrieved September 12, 2005, from
  http//plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-scienc
  e
• Constructivism. (2005). Retrieved September 13,
  2005, from University of Massachusetts at
  Amherst website http//www-unix.oit.umass.edu/af
  eldman/defcon.html
• Conway, J. (1997). Educational technology's
  effect on models of instruction. Retrieved
  September 13, 2005, from http//copland.udel.edu/
  jconway/EDST666.htmdislrn
• CSCL Theories. (2005). Retrieved September 12,
  2005, from http//www.edb.utexas.edu/csclstudent/D
  hsiao/theories.htmlvygot
• Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning
  for instruction (2nd ed). Needham Heights, MA
  Allyn and Bacon.

37
References Continued

• Howard Gardners Multiple Intelligence Theory.
  (2005). Retrieved September 13, 2005, from Penn
  State University website http//www.ed.psu.edu/in
  sys/ESD/gardner/MItheory.html
• Isom, M. (1998). Retrieved September 13, 2005,
  from FSU College of Criminology and Criminal
  Justice website http//www.criminology.fsu.edu/cr
  imtheory/bandura.htm
• Jerome Bruner. (2005). The PSI Café. Retrieved
  September 12, 2005, from http//www.psy.pdx.edu/Ps
  iCafe/KeyTheorists/Bruner.htm
• Keller, J. M., (1983). Development and use of the
  ARCS model of motivational design. Enschede,
  Netherlands Twente Univ. of Technology. (ERIC
  Document Reproduction Service No. ED 313 001).
• Meaningful Reception Learning Schema Theory.
  (2005). Retrieved September 13, 2005, from
  Indiana University website http//education.india
  na.edu/p540/webcourse/schema.htmltop
• Reiser, R., Dempsey, J. (2002) Instructional
  design and technology. Upper Saddle River, New
  Jersey Prentice Hall.
• Robert Gagne. (2005). Encyclopedia of educational
  technology. Retrieved September 13, 2005, from
  http//coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/gagnesevents/inde
  x.htm
• Small, R.V. (1997). Motivation in instructional
  design. Retrieved September 13, 2005, from
  http//www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/motivation.htm

38
References Continued

• Widmayer , S. (2005). Schema theory An
  introduction. Retrieved September 13, 2005,
  fromhttp//chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebas
  e/strategies/cognitivism/SchemaTheory.htm
• Wilson, B., Cole, P. (1994). An
  instructional-design review of cognitive teaching
  models. Paper presented at the meeting of the
  American Educational Research Association,
  Chicago, IL.