Introduction to Development Studies 2ECTS, 1ov

1
Introduction to Development Studies 2ECTS, 1ov

• Jaro Julkunen
• Mondays Lecture Hall XV at 12-14
• Wednesdays Lecture Hall XIV (13.10 at 16-18
  20.10. at 8.30-10, the rest at 10-12)

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Development Studies

• research interest of post-WWII world
• comparative focus on international development
• primary normative object on social, political and
  economic issues
• examples of central objectives poverty,
  inequality, social change, education,
  globalization, capital flows, resources,
  governance, environment, participation, health,
  gender
• in Finland
• University of Turku minor studies
• University of Helsinki PhD

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Course Description

• Basic information is provided on the situation
  of the developing countries in an international
  context, from the perspectives of social and
  political development. Central theories and
  explanatory models referring to the international
  development problem are also presented.
• No prerequisite studies are presumed.

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Conceptual Surroundings of Development

• Synonym/hyponym for change
• - usually development is considered as a
  positive change, beneficial alteration,
  achievement of a better life (but also illness
  can develop)
• Development derives from the word of uncovering
  or unfolding (old French des-envolupper)
• Kehitys/utveckling/entwicklung/evolution derive
  from the image of the opening circle

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Other parallel concepts

• development, progress, advancement, growth
• Progress derives from the idea of moving on,
  advancing (Lat. pro gredi)
• Progress has a connotation of structural changes
  which are based on superindividual factors
• Metaphor of organic growth is a prototype of
  cyclic development (linear development omits the
  decline)
• Development is more consciously accomplished
  change

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Counterconcepts

• Opposite of change
• unchangeability, undevelopment and stagnation
• Change, but opposite direction
• decay, degeneration, atrophy, decline,
  regression, retrogradiation and recession
• Insufficient degree of change
• underdevelopment
• Diachronic distance from significant center
• primitiveness
• Synchronic distance from significant center
• backwardness

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Structure of the Concept

• a) Cause
• - progress transhistorical, consciously exogene
  (unintentional), natural
• - development human, consciously endogene
  (intentional), cultural
• b) Process
• - directionality linear/cyclic,
  progression/regression
• - cumulativity knowledge of previous
  generations as a basis of development/ alienation
  as a basis of decline
• - irreversebility
• c) Aim
• - certain social system (homogenisation/pluralisa
  tion)
• - growth of virtues (happiness, freedom,
  equality, responsibility)
• - perfection

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Narratives of Development -Descriptions of
historical processes
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Basis on Comparison
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Dimensions of Development Theories

• historical context
• causal relationships, rules and methods
  constituting knowledge
• indicators and symbols of development
• political agenda-setting

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Development and Historical Context

• Development
• makes sense only in the realisation of history
• is not, however, reduced to history
• is more abstract and theoretical than history
  (past, history, development)
• is manifested in histories (plural)
• is considered as a reaction to problems

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Epistemology of Development

• Construction of a general theory/ Study of a
  particular case
• Understanding the integration of facts and values
• Methodological realism/ relativism
• Moral realism/ relativism

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Components and Indicators (examples)

• Health
• Economic resources
• Education
• Social integration
• Housing
• Security
• Recreation
• Political resources

• - physical abilites, illnesses,doctor
• income, wealth, property
• years of education
• attachments and contacts
• space, nr of persons/room
• exposure of violence/theft
• leisure pursuits, theatres
• voting, memberships

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Political Agenda-Setting

• different definitions and focuses highlight
  different evaluations, which
• privilege particular political interests or
  cultural preferences and
• set particular policy implications and future
  projects

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Developing Countries? results

• A Argentina 161
• B Bosnia-Herzegovina 144
• C China 21
• D Cyprus 41
• E Egypt 15
• F Finland 0
• G Georgia 202
• H Hungary 21
• I Israel 5
• J Jamaica 19
• K Kazakhstan 252
• L Libya 192

• M Mexico 182
• N Taiwan 5
• O Oman 142
• P Portugal 0
• Q Qatar 112
• R Romania 103
• S South Africa 111
• U Ukraine 72
• V Syria 171
• W Albania 163
• X Brazil 202
• Y Turkey 62

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Paradigms of World Politics

• One World
• one global system
• harmonious end of ideology/history
• under tension WST
• Two Worlds
• global system as bivaricate
• center/periphery, North/South, developed/developin
  g, East/West, episteme/techne, modern/traditional,
  rich/poor, Orient/Occident, Jihad/McWorld
• geographically locatable or structurally divising
• Three Worlds
• Cold War political division with two superpowers
  and the non-aligned
• center/semiperiphery/periphery
• Civilizations (over 5, under 10)
• culturally segmented world system
• About 180 States
• states the only important actors in world affairs

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Development and Modernity

• development theories arise to explain the
  changing Western societies of 19th and 20th
  centuries
• unchanging non-Western societies were used as a
  comparative resources in explaining modernity
• ideas
• 1) development is inherent in society
• - from the dichotomy order/change to
  order-in-change
• 2) development is dimensional
• 3) development appears as growth and often
  proceeds as necessary stages

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Developmentalism

• Premises for Western developmental thought
• - technology
• - socio-economic changes
• - religious disruptions
• - rise of individualism
• - breaking-up of the idea of future
• Religion of modernity (Rist)
• - secularisation
• - social beliefs (human rights, development,
  knowledge)

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Developmentalist Ideas

• The Enlightenment
• rationalisation, civilisation, liberation,
  freedom, truth
• Positivism
• universalism, division of ethics out of knowledge
• Economic Thought
• capitalism, industrialism
• Cultural and Social Evolutionism
• comparison of one society (internal natural laws)
• polymorphism, survival of the fittest, general
  history
• Diffusionism
• influence analysis (natural laws in the spread of
  winning phenomena)
• cultural contacts
• Imperialism

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Motives for Imperialism

• commercial, economic interests
• - natural resources, markets, dead end of
  capitalist national space
• interests of social policy
• - the poor, the outcasts
• interests of power politics
• - European hegemonic struggle, formation of a
  social order
• sociopsychological interests
• - preservation of social structure by warrior
  aristocracy (devil and elite theories)
• ideological interests
• - evangelisation, civilisation philantrophy,
  solidarity, matter of duty

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Critiques of Imperialism

• Liberalist critique
• bias and malfunction in a capitalist system,
• protectionist operation against free trade,
• cause of huge warfare and administrative costs,
• cause of monopolisation
• Marxist critique
• interest of capitalists (allow extra time for
  capitalist phase)
• Nationalist critique
• political focus on wrong direction
• Cultural critique
• change of justified social conditions, cultural
  and political integrity

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The Idea of Imperial/International Control

• trusteeship property to be placed in the hands
  of trustees who would be chosen on the basis of
  their capacity to decide where and how societys
  resources should be invested
• education civilisation
• social system primary health care

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International Economic Development

• starting-point global economic imbalance
• moral interest responsibilities and rights
  of both the rich and the poor
• focus problem-solving quarters and
  mechanisms, availability of growth
  factors and access to them

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Western Liberal Democracy Doctrine

• reconstruction of distroyed economies and
  formation of new ones (Marshall Plan, UN, Bretton
  Woods)
• abstaining of totalitarism (communism, national
  socialism)
• building of better life standards to
  underdeveloped countries with technical and
  economic knowledge
• adapting social development assistance from
  closed colonial system to open international
  context
• New active US foreign policy (Truman doctrine)
• End of Ideology

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Other Cold War Doctrines

• Socialist Revolutionary Doctrine
• Soviet Union
• Latin America
• Non-align Movement
• Concept of the Third World
• Bandung Conference 1955

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Modernisation Theories

• base on theories of development economics
• ideal of studying societal phenomena according to
  methodologies similar to natural sciences
• Comparative historical modernisation theories
• Functionalist and macrobehaviorist modernisation
  theories

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Comparative historical modernisation theories

• identification of universal developmental phases
• generality in particular processes of change
• aim at combining versatile factors of explanation
  (economic, psychological, political etc.)
• criticised of the speculativity theoretical
  basis not convincing empiricists
• Cyril E. Black, S.N. Eisenstadt, Seymor Martin
  Lipset, Barrington Moore jr.
• Example Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic
  Growth (1960)

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Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• First Stage Traditional society
• static society
• fatalist worldview (life, environment)
• person-depended power structures (kinship
  relations)
• societal resources in agriculture
• undeveloped sciences and technologies (Newton as
  a symbol)
• no directional changes in life standards

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Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Second Stage Preconditions for take-off
• a) freeborn model
• - internal stimuli (cultural heterogeneity, no
  restricting feudal/imperial system)
• b) basic model
• - threat of expansion of more developed
  countries
• - traditional order under challenging pressure
• social understanding for the need of continuous
  growth and actualisation of scientific
  innovations
• rise of new virtues and aims
• national prestige
• higher economic gains
• general welfare
• better life standards for new generations
• rise of capable entrepreneurship
• rise of investments, especially on transport and
  means of conveyance

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Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• social framework still limited
• importance of the state sector (nation-state
  cooperatives contra traditional rule)
• continuous economic growth not a normal state yet
  (promoters still a minority)
• industry not wide enough to satisfy the needs of
  balanced foreign trade
• demonstrational effect promotion of
  modernisation with professional and political
  coalitions

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Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Third Stage Take-Off
• dividing line (decade or two) forming a modern
  society
• usually a clear stimulus in which the society
  responds by turning into ideas of modernisation
• political power to forces that promote continuous
  economic growth
• economic growth becomes a normal state and there
  are no obstacles for it even though the
  industrial base still narrow
• industry based on natural resources takes the
  lead (harpoon)
• new branches of industry are expanding rapidly
• profits are used to establish new production
  plants
• demand for industrial working power gt
  urbanisation and commercialisation of agriculture
• birth rates begin to decline

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Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Fourth Stage Maturing
• 40-60 years period of growth expanding to every
  economic sector
• profits rise faster than population grows
• 10-20 of national product can be invested
• mechanism of production developes with new
  branches of industry that overtakes the old ones
  which are losing their importance
• production of commodities that were imported
  earlier, new import needs and export products
• technical processes more sophisticated (rise of
  degree of processing)
• national economy capable of capitalising modern
  technology in most of its investments
• dependence on foreign trade links is dictated by
  economic calculations and political priorities,
  not by technical and institutional necessities

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Walter W. Rostow Stages of Economic Growth (1960)

• Fifth Stage Mass Consumption Society
• sectors of consumer durables and service take the
  lead
• real income rises so that most of the people are
  able to consume also other products than the
  necessary
• official employees to a central part in the
  structure of working power
• technical development starts to lose the prima
  facie value
• continuous growth of state institutions
  investments on social welfare and security
  purposes
• crystallising in a welfare society

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Structural Modernisation

• Structural Functionalism
• reseach focus functions of (parts of ) social
  structures from the viewpoint of compound system
  functionality meaningful and non-meaningful
  structures
• naturally and unobstructed functioning society is
  a stabile totality where different sectors
  dependend from each other
• counterpoint for evolutionism (not focusing on
  historical change but on the overall situation of
  each time)
• both primitive and developed social systems were
  seen as functional (organisations)
• change is an effort to eliminate social
  dysfunctions
• Talcott Parsons, Marion Levy, Gabriel Almond,
  David Apter, Fred Riggs

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Structural Modernisation

• Macro-behaviorism
• research focus dynamic state (variable
  relations), social and political processes
• correlations and causal explanations
• universality of modernisation
• Karl Deutsch, Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing
  of Traditional Society

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Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing of Traditional
Society

• objective 1 developing of methodologies for
  studies on phenomena of social psychology in
  modernisation process
• objective 2 presenting of primary
  characteristics of modern state and the
  processual nature of modernisation

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Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing of Traditional
Society

• Characteristics of a modern state
• urbanisation (population living in gt50000 towns
  percentage of total population)
• literacy (percentage of literates of total
  population)
• voting (voter percentage of total population in
  national elections)
• media participation (percentage of tot.pop. of
  those buying newspapers, owning radios, going to
  movies)
• Correlations for example literacy/media
  participation
• Causal explanation the literacy rate rocketed
  after urbanisation rate exceeded 10 ? media
  participation ? other participatory institutions
  (especially voting)

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Daniel Lerner (1958) The Passing of Traditional
Society

• Modernisation process
• modern society is dynamic and participatory
• the process towards modernisation is unilinear,
  stages follow each other with autonomic
  historical logic of same mechanisms
• the moving forces of modernisation process are
  urbanisation and new information (orbit of desire
  and horizons of expectations)
• modernising individuals and institutions are in a
  strong system relationship of dependency
• life style non-participation ? participatory
• personality static ? mobile
• emotional identification unability ? empathy
• identity structure static ? dynamic

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Karl W. Deutsch (1961) Social Mobilization and
Political Development

• Modern nationality is constructed from a double
  process of social mobilisation and cultural
  assimilation
• Social mobilisation social, economic and
  technological development makes people leave
  their traditional agrarian environments to be
  mobilised for more intensive communication
• Cultural assimilation information given in the
  modernisation process is accepted and thus
  orientation towards change prevails over
  traditional group affliations
• Nation building is a balancing of these processes
  

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Reasons for failings of modernisation

• Lerner (1958)
• when an occational sector (for example
  urbanisation) grows without mutual growth of
  other sectors, the result is unfavourable
  imbalance of modernisation
• modernisation is both technical process but
  especially a change of ideology and a way of life
  (the mental change spreads over a long period)
• Deutsch (1961)
• imbalance of the double process (lack of cultural
  assimilation ? reactive ethnic nationalism)

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Samuel P. Huntington (1968) Political Order in
Changing Societies

• research questions
• what makes the downfall of social/political
  development?
• why changes tend not to go like modernisation
  theories predict?
• where revolutions come from and why?
• Comparative study of revolutions
• the poorest countries were relatively stable, but
  the a bit of affluent countries were explosive
• ? the reason for revolutions was not on poverty
  but on the imbalanced modernisation process
• - social mobilisation brings on activity and
  horizons of expectations
• - incapable government can not take advantage of
  the increased activity
• - activity and expectations turn into a
  radicalising opposition
• - the relatively strong inequality of economic
  growth that is connected the first stages of
  modernisation amplifies the reactions (atmosphere
  of instability)

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Samuel P. Huntington (1968) Political Order in
Changing Societies

• Political circumstances after social mobilisation
  depends on the rate of institutionalisation
  closely institutionalised politics connects the
  new citizens to existing sectors of activity ?
  strong civil society
• Civil society can be democratic or totalitarian
• Revolutions rise from frustrated alienation of
  middle-class (most expectations, knowledge-based
  opposition towards status quo)

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Samuel P. Huntington (1968) Political Order in
Changing Societies

• social mobilisation
• 1. social frustration
• economic development
• social frustration
• 2. political participation
• mobility possibitilies
• political participation
• 3. political instability
• political institutionalisation

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Backwash Analysis

• A new dynamic branch of industry absorbs
  resources from other sectors of production and
  geographic peripheries (cf. Rostows harpoon
  effect)
• This dynamic branch makes money, but the wealth
  spills abroad (to industrialised countries)
• Backwash effect movement of the capital is
  negative and the country becomes poorer (backwash
  effect is stronger than trickle down effect)
• Universal direction of capital stream
  (inferior?dominant, periphery?centre,
  underprivileged?privileged, poor?rich)
• The trading instruments of a poor country become
  all along more unfavourable

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The Vicious Circle of Poverty
46
Dependency

• UN Economic Commission for Latin America
  (ECLA/CEPAL)
• promoting economic growth
• ECLA manifesto 1950 explanation for
  underdevelopment
• a) laissez faire economic policies
• biased export orientation
• underdeveloped internal market network
• weak governmental control of economy
• b) structure of the world trade system
• factors of economic problems beyond the reach of
  local governments
• no local instruments for preventing economic
  threats (depression)
• preconditions for economic growth are not
  universal
• realisation of the separate economic regularities
  of the industrialized countries and the
  underdeveloped countries
• realisation of the geography of poverty

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Constructed Underdevelopment

• Underdevelopment
• was not an original condition, but a product of
  expanding capitalism and economic imperialism
• was brought about by external reasons
• is another side of the coin development of the
  industrialised countries is made of the
  underdevelopment of the rest
• Andre Gunder Frank
• Europe did not discover the underdeveloped
  countries, it created them
• the more natural resources for exploitation a
  region had when the capitalist system unrolled,
  the poorer and more underdeveloped it is today

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Centre and Periphery

• Capitalism produces inevitably a divided class
  society, which expands to global scale
• Vulgar dependecia global geographic centre and
  periphery
• Structural dependecia centre has its foothold on
  regionally peripheric areas
• Common characters of the periphery (Samir Amin)
• domination of agrarian capitalism
• local merchant bourgoisie controlling foreign
  capital
• bureucratic social system controlled by urban
  bourgoisie
• a vast proletarian class of poor peasants,
  marginally empowered workers, and unemployed
  urban dwellers

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Dependencia Actions and Objectives

• Keynesian Reforms
• state control to economy
• allowing of protectionist instruments for
  periphery and demolition of those of
  industrialised countries
• creating needs for Latin American, African and
  Asian internal markets for gaining self-reliancy
• emphasis on broadly-based industrialisation,
  regulation and dismantling of traditional
  landowning conditions
• ending of imitation of Western models (economy,
  sciences, arts)
• Raúl Prebish (ECLA), Gunnar Myrdal
• Radical Dependencia
• revolution of the world trade structure
• Marxism

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Application of the dependency argument Case of
Tanzania

• independency and establishing of a federal sate
  of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, Tanzania (early
  1960s)
• Arusha Declaration 1967 self-reliance and
  African socialism
• cutting off of the economic dependency by
  accession to the Third World (especially China)
• socialization of banks and important companies
• cultural revolution 1969 outlawing imitations of
  the European culture
• shrinking confidence on economic and political
  collaboration (growing apart from Pan-African,
  East African and finally Third World linkages) ?
  isolation
• change of politics 1985 acceptance of the WB/IMF
  structural adjustment demands, abandonment of the
  orthodox African socialism

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World-System Theory (WST)

• a macrosociological theory of international
  dependence (Marxist theories, Annales school of
  historical research, emphasis on economy)
• developing unit world as an organism
• research interest origins and dynamics of the
  capitalist world economy as a total social
  system, ongoing transition to socialism
• model of explanation historical stages of
  development, but different than those of
  modernisation theory
• criticism to modernisation theory nation-state
  level, single path evolution, ahistorical
  research,
• Immanuel Wallerstein

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World Systems

• Mini Systems
• in hunter and gathering or extremely simple
  agricultural societies
• complete division of labor
• single, uniform cultural framework
• kinship as a structuring factor
• exchange economy (barter)
• World Empires
• universal homogenization of division of labor
• payment of tribute as protection cost (mini
  system ? part of world empire)
• politically united systems
• examples Rome, Egypt, China
• World Economies
• the present capitalist system is the first world
  economy
• plurality of political systems support the world
  economy
• production mainly for markets

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Core/ Semiperiphery /Periphery

• World economy develops a flourishing core
• For its economic expansion the core needs surplus
  from the peripheries
• Semiperiphery
• a buffer zone that deflects the revolutionary
  activity of peripheries
• although world class struggle do not operate
  within state boundaries, semiperipheries are
  states
• Class interests are clearer in the peripheries ?
  revolution has to come from the peripheries
• Semiperipheral state is the area where a
  conscious state activity can produce world
  revolutionary elements

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Indicators of Development/Exploitation

• Division of labor
• transition from intrasocietal and intra-empire to
  international
• classes indicating transition to capitalist world
  economy
• Technology
• as hegemony factor (c.f. Habermas Technik als
  Ideologie)
• Expansion of production
• expansion, overproduction, redistribution of
  surplus, recovery (40-60 years)
• crisis of overproduction

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World Hegemony Cycles

• Hegemony a period in which one core power can
  simultaneuosly manifest productive, commercial,
  financial, and military superiority over all
  other core powers
• Period of hegemonic decline hegemonic power has
  lost its superiority in one realm while retaining
  it in others

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World System Hegemony Cycles

• European expansion
• Portugal late 15th c. 1600
• - pugnacity, military technology (naval
  matters), population hardened to variety of
  diseases
• 2. Holland c. 1600 late 17th
• - Protestantism, capable fluyt focused on trade,
  stock exchange
• Commercial England late 17th late 18th
• - internal social stability, mobile labor power
• Industrial Britain late 18th early 20th
• - industrialization, coal
• 5. United States early 20th
• - adoption of new technologies (electricity,
  petroleum)

57
Present World System

• USA hegemon after the WW II, now (1980s)
  declining
• Resemblances with two previous (capitalist)
  hegemons
• from agro-industry to commerce then finance
• liberal trade policy
• hegemony based on sea or sea/air power
• extended wars for securing hegemony
• assumptions of world responsibilities of
  protecting and preserving the liberal order
• liberal trade arrangements allows technology to
  spread ? new technology to non-hegemon states
• rise of income for the hegemon state working
  class ? competitive advantage to non-hegemon
  states

58
Present Hegemonic Rivalry Period

• USA loss of competitive edge of productivity,
  maintaining and presenting competitive edge on
  military power
• Emergence of new loci of power on the margins of
  the declining hegemons radius of action (East
  Asia, Europe?)
• the possible rise of a new region causes a
  relative decline of another (not only the present
  hegemon)

59
Critique of WST

• Eurocentrism
• A.G.Frank capitalist system 5000 years old few
  centuries ago Europe a periphery of world trade,
  hegemony in South and East Asia
• Reversed causality
• no proof on process of economic underdevelopment
  (case of Poland)
• No sensibility for cultural factors
• materialist approach limits the explanative force
• Methodological problems of macrosociology
• no systematic line in choosing of data, base on
  disconnected secondary sources

60
Alternative Development

• Inadequacy of developmentalist thought
• modernisation and dependency based on economism
• grand narratives of world-system theories
• failures of modernisationist practices (Green
  revolution)
• Stagnation of the international structure
• distrust on linear democratisation and economic
  growth
• vanishing global control
• Awakening to ecological limits
• environmental tolerance is incompatible with
  limitless economic growth
• Club of Rome (1972)

61
Demodernisation

• Renunciation of blinkered growth and
  dismantlement of ecologically destructing
  industry
• Relocation of power
• distrust towards the state
• Protectionism revisited
• away with CocaColonialism, McDonaldization and
  Disneyfication
• emphasis on plurality and diversity
• Subsidiarity
• development decision-making as close to
  recipients as possible
• state-level too remote

62
New Indicators for Development

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) numb for human
  development
• nature and distribution of income ignored
• Human centered indicators
• from standards of living to quality of life
• Human Development Index (HDI) GDP plus life
  expectancy and education ratios
• Green GDP GDP minus direct costs of
  environmental degradation
• Ecological Footprint (EF) land/capita needed to
  support consumption of resources

63
Sustainable Development

• Promotion of commodity exports has led to overuse
  of natural resource base ?
• Development which meets the present day needs
  without compromising the abilities of future
  generations to meet their needs
• Primacy of environmental awareness in development
  thought (especially including to values of trade)
• damage limitation and sustainability maximation
• Integration of economic growth to social equity
  and environmental management
• UN World Commission on Environment and
  Development (Brundtland Commission) 1987 Our
  Common Future
• Earth Summit - the United Nations Conference on
  Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de
  Janeiro 1992

64
Basic Needs

• Sturcturing the core values of development with
  the hierarchy of needs ?
• basic goods and services necessary for a minimum
  standard of living
• primacy, sufficient conditions satisfaction of
  basic individual needs for everybody
• secondary aim, necessary conditions global
  economic equality, rising per capita incomes
• WB 1972 redistribution of growth and meeting
  basic needs
• - development cooperation and money distribution
  to small projects
• International Labor Organisation (1976)
  Employment, Growth and Basic Needs

65
Emphasis on Culture

• protection of local culture from cultural
  homogenisation
• emphasis on studying endogeneous characteristics
  and influence of characteristics coming from
  outside
• new (paradigmatic) interests
• religion and language structuring culture
• gender in development practices
• power, knowledge and empowerment
• otherness
• a challenge to Western development model
• a challenge to universalist development theories
• distrust on state as a development coordinator
• new definitions of poverty from local
  perspectives

66
Development from Below

• Empowerment
• capacitation
• participation
• Indeginous knowledge
• populism
• critique of science
• Trickle-up
• grass-root development agency
• Voluntarism
• creativist idea of individuals (contra
  consumerism)
• Avoidance of bureaucracy
• Self-reliance as objective (contra as means for
  modernisation)
• aims and values from within
• no forerunners to follow
• Modenisation from outside causes decay of
  natural societies

67
Influence on Development Research and Policies

• Research focus on
• society/individual level
• participation
• ecology and culture (contra economy and social
  sciences)
• abandonment of universalist theories
  (ethnocentrism)
• Policy emphasis on
• NGOs
• partnership
• new development actors (former margins)

68
Samuel P. Huntington The Clash of Civilizations
and the Remaking of World Order (1996)

• Explanation of post-Cold War world
• when studying conflicts attention to cultural
  identity and its meaning in the world order
• crystallisation of argument modernisation ?
  Westernisation
• the world is based on civilisations
• civilisations subordinate to cyclic development
  model

69
Samuel P. Huntington The Clash of Civilizations
and the Remaking of World Order (1996)

• Civilisations
• in present-day world seven or eight civilisations
  (in the world history over 20)
• broadest cultural levels of identification, based
  on language, culture, tradition, religion
• unique, uniting cluster of views about God,
  society, liberties, authorities, relationships,
  hierarchies
• have centre (core states) and peripheries
• lines between civilisations are fuzzy (blending
  and overlapping)

70
Samuel P. Huntington The Clash of Civilizations
and the Remaking of World Order (1996)

• Ideological clashes ? civilisation clashes
• civilisation-consciousness has risen
• increasing interactions between peoples
• nation state (old source of identity) has
  weakened because of economic modernisation
• modernisation from within bases on cultural
  authenticity
• end of ideological conflict exposes profound
  cultural characteristics
• rising economic regionalism (EU, NAFTA, Mercosur,
  AFTA)
• macro level
• civilisations (core states) compete for military
  and economic power, struggle over control of
  international institutions, and promote their
  political and religious values
• micro level
• territorial struggles are located to
  civilisational peripheries, the fault lines
  between civilisations

71
Samuel P. Huntington The Clash of Civilizations
and the Remaking of World Order (1996)

• Fault Lines
• replace (unfold from) Cold War boundaries (e.g.
  Iron Curtain) as the points of crisis
• replacement of conflicts between social classes
  to those between peoples belonging to different
  cultural entities
• regions of the most dangerous cultural conflicts
• potential for escalation when civilisations rally
  to the support of their kin countries
• the potential third World War is a civilisation
  conflict that starts in the fault line
• intracivilization conflicts less intense and less
  likely to expand
• fault lines of the present-day Islam civilization
  are especially vulnerable (Yugoslavia, Caucasus,
  Israel, India, North East Africa)

72
Samuel P. Huntington The Clash of Civilizations
and the Remaking of World Order (1996)

• Cyclic Development Model (West and the Rest)
• during 500 years Western civilisation created a
  multipolar intracivilisation power system (nation
  states) and decisively inluenced other
  civilisations ? hegemony
• the failure of band-wagoning West is a sign of
  diminished hegemony
• (temporary) survival of the West depends on
  Westerners accepting their civilizstion as unique
  not universal and that West should not intervene
  violently other civilisations
• the time will come for a new hegemonic
  civilisation (most probably from East Asia)

73
Samuel P. Huntington The Clash of Civilizations
and the Remaking of World Order (1996)

• Research focus on
• civilisation-depended cultural forms and values
• influences of shifting hegemony
• Criticism
• premises for identification mechanisms vague
  (profound, however changeable when needed)
• when a cluster of values is unique enough for
  being value base of a civilisation?
• are civilisations internally that uniform?
• are there real unchanging cultural forms?

74
Anti-Development

• Development discourse is a political endeavor of
  those willing to speak for others
• - development intervention based on deceptive
  fictional ideology
• Means of development incorrect
• - trusteeship intervention obstructs free growth
• - state is an authoritarian actor
• - Neo-Liberalism
• Means and goals of development incorrect
• - rejection of growth
• - Post-Development

75
Post-Development

• perspective ranging from military closure to soft
  retsructure of minds
• emphasis on local knowledge
• Development
• form of Western modernism and scientific
  distortion (Westernisation)
• new religion of the West
• antidemocratic programme
• authoritarian, privileging discourse
• empowerment of the Western knowledge system
• universalistic presupposition
• ethnocentric model of society
• concept for exploitation of endogenous cultures
• normalisation, homogenisation

76
Anti-managerialism

• anti-authoritarian sensibility
• disgust to external control mechanisms
  international financial institutions and state
  (control system is one version of the Panopticon)
• suspicion of new managerialisms of the NGOs
  (alternative development)
• new clothes (sustainable, human, local, social)
  for development
• unclear and managerial aims self-sufficiency,
  basic needs, participation etc.
• post-development as present-day anarchism
• anti-political tendency (cf. other post-isms)

77
Critique of Science

• Present hegemony of science is based on the
  privileged position of Western middle-aged man
• - one knowledge system hegemony gives support to
  one political programme (for example economics)
• - prohibition of the knowledge systems of
  non-Western societies
• - forming of laboratory states of the Third
  World
• - unethical intentions, worldview and mindset
  (aim at mastery over nature)
• ? need for new endogenous truths

78
Neo-Classical Economics

• underdevelopment explained by differences in
  policies (not in initial conditions)
• emphasising equilibrium on the laws of supply and
  demand
• efficiency required (best met by perfect
  competition in free markets)
• focus on disaggregeted microstudies (away with
  grand theories)
• agrument free markets underpin human freedom in
  general, states should avoid interventions

79
Neoliberalism

• starting-point Liberalism and neo-classical
  economics
• reason of underdevelopment exploitative state
  evil government
• development idea free markets and international
  trade allow the best context for general welfare
• objective establishment of a global market-based
  system
• elimination of state interventions to the minimum
• with open and outaward-looking economy
• with privatisation of state-owned enterprises

80
Rise of the Neoliberalist Doctrine

• End of Bretton Woods system 1973
• New Right governments of USA, Britain and Germany
  1980s
• Structural adjustment programs of IMF and WB
• Washington Consensus

81
Postwar Global System

• Realization of the international underdevelopment
  problem
• focus change civilization gt economic growth
• hegemonic change in the international politics
• Bretton Woods institutions a global economic and
  political government
• World Bank
• International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• International Trade Organization (ITO)/ General
  Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)/ World
  Trade Organization (WTO)
• United Nations (UN)
• Political outlinings of world system
• Western Liberal Democracy Doctrine
• Socialist Revolutionary Doctrine
• Non-alignment Doctrine

82
World Bank i.e. International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and
International Development Association (IDA)

• responsibility of economic reconstruction and
  development projects
• provide low-interest loans, interest-free credit,
  and grants to development projects
• project lending gt program lending
• from the principle of national sovereignty to
  growing conditionality on the competence of the
  recipient government
• not bank, but rather a specialized agency of the
  United Nations
• World Bank Group IBDR, IDA, International
  Finance Corporation (IFC), The Multilateral
  Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), The
  International Centre for Settlement of Investment
  Disputes (ICSID)

83
The International Monetary Fund

• IMF is responsible for ensuring the stability of
  the international monetary and financial system
• responsibility of
• promoting international monetary cooperation
• promoting exchange rate stability
• promoting orderly exchange arrangements
• fostering balanced economic growth of
  international trade and high levels of employment
  
• providing temporary financial assistance to
  countries to help ease balance of payments
  adjustment
• operations
• surveillance over exchange arrangements
• financial assistance
• technical assistance

84
International Trade Organization (ITO) gt General
Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) gt World
Trade Organization (WTO)

• BW ITO
• responsibility of
• controlling commodity prices
• promoting equal access to the markets, products
  and productive facilities
• promoting on a reciprocal and mutually
  advantageous basis for the reduction of tariffs
  and other barriers to trade and the elimination
  of discriminatory treatment in international
  commerce
• facilitating through the promotion of mutual
  understanding, consultation and co-operation, the
  solution of problems relating to international
  trade
• GATT (1947)
• agreement without surveillance tools of an
  organization planned
• WTO (1995)
• responsibility of helping producers to conduct
  their business with administering trade
  agreements, negotiations, handling trade
  disputes, monitoring national trade policies, and
  offering technical assistance
• state-to-state relations cooperative openness,
  harmonization, fairness, risk reduction
• domestic policies self-restraint, coalition
  building
• international organization trade functionalism,
  comparative institutionalism

85
United Nations (UN)

• UN responsible for
• political outlining of global economy and
  security
• planning and realizing of large development aid
  programs
• taking care of world peace and security, social
  and economic development, human rights and other
  humanitarian affairs, and international law
• maintaining equilibrium of international system
  and administering international dialogue
• Main bodies
• General Assembly
• Economic and Social Council
• International Court of Justice
• Security Council
• Trusteeship Council
• Secreteriat

86
Governmental organisations
87
Non-governmental organisations
88
Third World

• bringing off of the bipolar world from the
  perspective of global power structure
• forming of a political coalition between
  underdeveloped countries in order to gain
  self-sufficiency
• ending of the neo-colonialism
• introduction of the term Third World as a symbol
  of these common objectives
• Bandung Conference 1955
• Non-Align Movement

89
Fourth and Fifth Worlds

• development project has immisered others
• the immiserizing is both geographical and
  structural, but not based on class structures so
  much as power/knowledge privileges
• the new poor (end of national solidarity)
• native indigenous minorities
• least advanced countries (end of international
  solidarity)
• women

90
Globalisation

• unlimited and accelerating movement and
  transportation of ideas, people, capital and
  products
• links between world parts widen and become deeper
  
• vanishing state?
• critique
• black protectionism
• red protectionism
• green protectionism

91
Poverty

• mainstream understanding income and ability to
  consumption, synonymous with underdevelopment
• Post-developmentalist critique
• political concept has displaced modernisation as
  the motive for development policies of both
  international financial organizations and
  governments (focus change)
• extension health, social services, political
  rights etc.
• relatisization culture/poverty, meaning of
  poverty lines

92
Development Theories
93
Development Theories
94
A. Analysis of what is
B. Analysis what ought to be
95
Narratives of developmentHistory from Past to
Present
96
Development Ethics
97
Visions of Development

• dependence on the view about human being as an
  actor (voluntarist/determinist)
• character of the object ? the focus of the
  research problem is already fundamental
• reflexive development reaction to preceding
  development theories ?
• spiral of reflexivities