Work Motivation

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Work Motivation
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Motivation

• that which energizes, directs and sustains
  behavior
• Motivation influences
• Direction of behavior
• choice of behaviors
• Intensity of action
• amount of effort
• Persistence of behavior
• duration of behavior

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The Performance Process
Behavior
Performance
Motivation
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Equity Theory

• Assumption
• a persons behavior is influenced by comparisons
  between their current status and some comparison
  other
• Inputs
• what people think they contribute to an
  organization
• Outputs
• what people think organization gives them in
  return

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Equity Theory (cont.)

• Ratio of Inputs/Outputs is calculated by worker
• Worker compares their ratio with the ratio of an
  appropriate other
• If ratios are equivalent, no motivation to modify
  behavior
• If ratios are not equivalent, the worker is
  motivated to bring ratios in-line

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Examples of Possible Ratios

• Worker 100 Other 100 Fair/Equitable 100
  100
• Worker 100 Other 75 Underpayment 100
  100
• Worker 100 Other 100 Overpayment 125
  100

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Inequity Outcomes

• Underpayment
• Workers will decrease effort
• Decreases in product quality and quantity
• Good empirical support
• Overpayment
• Workers should expend more effort (i.e., increase
  inputs), or produce higher quality
• No empirical support
• People not motivated to resolve overpayment
  inequity

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Industrial Applicability

• Social comparisons ARE made, but there are other
  ways to reduce inequity other than increased
  motivation
• Cognitive distortion of inputs or outputs
• Quit/get fired
• Try to change other persons ratio!
• Change comparison other

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Reinforcement Theory

• Based on principles of behaviorism
• Operant conditioning
• behavior is controlled by its consequences
• Reinforcement
• consequences that increases likelihood of
  behavior
• Punishment
• consequences that make a behavior less likely

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement
• behavior is reinforced every time it occurs
• Fixed Ratio
• 1 for every ten widgets
• Variable ratio
• 1 for every ten widgets on average (8, 12, 2,
  18)
• Fixed Interval
• 100 per week
• Variable Interval
• paid 100 every 7 days on average (3, 9, 12, 4)

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Empirical Support

• Moderate support
• Contingent reinforcement better than
  non-contingent reinforcement
• Ratio reinforcement schedules evoke superior
  performance compared to interval schedules
• Little difference among ratio schedules

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VIE Expectancy Theory

• M (VI)E
• Motivation is derived from relationships among
• Valence
• value of outcomes
• Instrumentality
• performance-reward contingencies
• Expectancy
• effort-performance contingencies

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Valence of Outcomes

• Expected satisfaction from a given outcome
• Outcomes include any event that might result from
  a workers behavior
• praise, promotion, pay raise, coworker ridicule
• Values range from 10 to 10

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• Instrumentality
• Expectation that performance will result in
  reward (-1 to 1)
• Expectancy
• Perceived likelihood that effort will lead to
  performance (0 to 1)
• e.g., expending high effort at work will lead to
  outstanding performance evaluation

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Industrial Applicability

• Provides rational basis for why people expend
  effort
• If you can
• increase the links between
• effort and performance (self-efficacy, ability,
  reduced situational constraints) and
• performance and outcomes
• provide valued outcomes
• Then, can possibly increase motivation

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Implications for Managers

• Expectancy
• suggests that managers should ensure that
  employees can do their job
• training, ability
• environmental constraints, supplies, technology
• Valence
• managers should offer appropriate rewards that
  their employees value
• Instrumentality
• managers should ensure that the link between job
  performance and rewards is clear and explicit

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Goal Setting Theory (Locke et al.)

• Recall motivation is that which energizes,
  directs and sustains behavior
• Goals can influence each of these
• behavior is guided most directly by intentions
• goals clarify what needs to be done (directs
  effort)
• goals mobilize effort and energy
• goals serve to sustain behavior when combined
  with feedback

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Performance is best when...

• Goals are specific
• Goals are challenging
• Workers have necessary ability
• Feedback is provided
• Rewards are clearly understood and provided
• Management supports goal attainment
• provides necessary time resources
• Goals are internalized and accepted by employees

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Goal Setting (cont.)

• Empirical support is strong
• Performance under goal-setting conditions is
  almost always superior to no goal setting
  conditions
• Extremely applicable
• Can set specific, challenging goals for every
  conceivable job and person

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Organizational Justice

• Distributive Justice
• The perceived fairness of the amount and
  allocation of rewards among individuals.
• Procedural Justice
• The perceived fairness of the process used to
  determine the distribution of rewards.

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Job Enrichment

• The process of making a job more motivational
  and satisfying by adding variety, responsibility,
  and managerial decision making.
• Characteristics
• Direct feedback
• Client relationships
• New learning
• Control over scheduling
• Unique experience
• Control over resources
• Direct communication authority
• Personal accountability

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Hackman OldhamsJob Characteristics Model

• Combines both task and individual characteristics
• Motivating Potential Score
• Skill Variety (SV)
• Task Identity (TI)
• Task Significance (TS)
• Autonomy (A)
• Feedback (F)
• MPS SV TI TS x A x F
• 3
• Growth Need Strength

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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

• Certain things are necessary, but not sufficient,
  for job satisfaction
• Motivators
• --------------------------------------
• Hygiene factors

Satisfaction
Dissatisfaction
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Herzbergs Two Factor Theory

• Motivator Factors
• serve to motivate and satisfy people
• Recognition, Growth Opportunities, Achievement
• Hygiene Factors
• serve to prevent dissatisfaction
• Pay, Working Conditions, Job Security

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The Bottom Line

• Recognize Individual Differences
• Use Goals Feedback
• Allow Employees to Participate in Decisions that
  Affect Them
• Link Rewards to Performance
• Check the System(s) for Equity