SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

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SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

• Sport the Individual
• AGGRESSION IN SPORT

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Aggressive Behaviour

• Zinedine Zidane headbutts Marco Materazzi (2006)
• Mike Tyson bites off Evander Holyfields ear
  (1997)
• John McEnroe swears at the umpire (1981)

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Defining Aggression

• Hostile aggression
• Intent is to harm
• Normally an emotion (anger)
• Instrumental aggression
• Means to an end

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Assertiveness

• John Silva (1980)
• goal directed it aims for a particular purpose
• not intended to harm
• using only legitimate force (within the rules of
  the game)
• not breaking the agreed rules of the sport (eg.
  Marquis of Queensbury)

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Studying Behaviour

• Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
• Studied saliva in dogs
• FOOD BELL ? dog salivates
• BELL only ? salivation
• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Power of association

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Behaviourism

• Pavlovs ideas inspired BEHAVIOURISM
• Theory that behaviour can be understood without
  recourse to mind
• Focus on observed behaviour, not invisible
  cognitions
• Very influential in middle of 20th century

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Operant Conditioning

• B F Skinner (1904-90) developed Pavlovs ideas
• The Skinner Box
• Positive Reinforcement introduce food
• Negative Reinforcement remove electric shock
• Conditioned response press lever

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Conditioning Aggression

• PAVLOV aggressive behaviour is associated with
  a cue
• Alcohol? Punk music? Crystal Palace fans?
• SKINNER aggressive behaviour has been
  reinforced in the past
• By success? excitement? attention?

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Social Learning

• In the 1970s, Albert Bandura developed these
  ideas further with Social Learning Theory
  (S.L.T.)
• Vicarious Learning
• We can learn complex behaviour from role models
• Especially aggression
• 1961 bashing Bobo experiment

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Social Learning through TV

• In 1965 Bandura replicated his 1961 study
• The role model was a boy (Rocky) who attacked
  Bobo on TV
• 3 conditions different endings
• (1) Rocky is rewarded
• (2) Rocky is punished
• (3) No reaction to Rocky

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Social Learning through TV 2

• Children imitated Rocky in condition 1 and 3
• Less imitation in condition 2
• Bandura then rewarded children for imitating

• Everyone imitated
• ? children learn from TV even when they dont
  imitate!

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Criticisms

• Not all aggressive behaviour is cued or
  reinforced
• In fact, a lot of it is frowned on
• Parents, teachers coaches all punish aggression
• Most role models are NON-aggressive
• A more sophisticated explanation is needed

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FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 1

• The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
• Developed by John Dollard (1939)
• Aggression is normal response to frustration
• Frustration occurs when a conditioned response is
  withheld
• EG your serve goes into the net

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FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 2

• Neal Miller (1941) was one of Dollards
  associates
• Found Dollards theory too extreme
• Does frustration ALWAYS produce aggression?
• What about cognitions?
• Close to achieving goal (eg falling in the final
  lap)
• Frustration is caused deliberately (eg being
  tripped)
• Frustration seems arbitrary or unfair (eg a bad
  line-call)

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FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 3

• How can we MEASURE aggression to test these
  theories out?
• Donnerstein Wilson (1976)
• Ps can give electric shocks to test subjects
  who make mistakes (actually confederates, faking
  shocks)
• In one condition, test subjects are rude/abusive
• Angry Ps give more shocks!

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The Instinct Theory

• A different approach
• Aggression is innate
• Freud said aggression was inborn drive, similar
  to sex or hunger
• Acting out aggression cleanses us removes
  stress and tension
• Catharsis

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The Instinct Theory 2

• Difficult to measure instinctual aggression
• (its unconscious)
• Inkblot tests?
• Observations?
• Leonard Berkowitz (1972) questions this idea
• Surely watching violence makes us MORE violent,
  not less?

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Testing Catharsis

• Robert Arms et al (1979)
• Some participants watch ice hockey wrestling
• Control group watches swimming
• Compare self-reports of hostility at the end
• Audience of violent sport is more aggressive
• (aggressive emotions ? not behaviour!)

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Summing Up 1

• Aggression may be a learned response
• Pavlov Skinner Bandura
• Or a learned response to frustration
• Dollard Miller
• Alternatively, it may be an instinct that needs
  to be expressed
• Freud

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Summing Up 2

• Learning theory of aggression very useful
• Suggests strategies for controlling aggression
• But ignores personality, disposition
• Ignores motivation (hostile vs instrumental
  aggression)
• Determinist

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Summing Up 3

• Instinct theory of aggression less useful
• No clear strategies for controlling aggression
  (psychoanalysis?)
• Personality screening?
• Focus on motivation (hostile vs instrumental
  aggression)
• Less determinist (willpower, self-restraint)

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Managing Aggression 1

• Raymond Novaco (1975) argues (like Freud) that
  aggression is useful, but often inappropriate
• Novaco Anger Inventory psychometric test to
  measure appropriate aggression
• Likert scale (SA, A, NAND, D, SD)
• You are talking to someone and they dont answer
  you
• You are trying to concentrate, but someone is
  tapping their foot

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Managing Aggression 2

• Raymond Novaco (1975) developed Anger Management
• Based on Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
• Changing thinking ? changed behaviour
• Theory aggression is over compensation for
  problems in relationships ? displaced onto wrong
  targets
• Solution identify problems, teach new ways of
  handling them

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Managing Aggression 3

• SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL TRAINING
• Come up with self-statements ? make them less
  negative
• Relaxation techniques
• Assertiveness training
• ROLE PLAYING
• Taking the role of the victim
• Practising different ways of handling conflict

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Does it work?

• John Brunelle et al (1999)
• 57 male footballers (age 18-28)
• 3 conditions for anger management during weekly
  practice session
• role-play (live demonstration, act out responses)
• anger awareness (discussion, journals)
• Control (no intervention)
• Observation self reports over 15 matches
• role-play had least aggression, followed by anger
  awareness