Title: SESSION: Wireless Communication Principles
1SESSION Wireless Communication Principles
- Wireless Network Classification
- Transmitters/Receivers
- Antennas
- Frequency Allocation
- Propagation Modes
- Noise characteristics
- Signal Encoding
- Error Detection and Correction
Ahmed Sameh
2(No Transcript)
3Factors in Designing Wireless Networks
4Wireless Frequency Allocation
- Radio frequencies range from 9KHz to 400GHZ (ITU)
- Microwave frequency range
- 1 GHz to 40 GHz
- Directional beams possible
- Suitable for point-to-point transmission
- Used for satellite communications
- Radio frequency range
- 30 MHz to 1 GHz
- Suitable for omnidirectional applications
- Infrared frequency range
- Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
- Useful in local point-to-point multipoint
applications within confined areas
5Wireless Radio Spectrum Frequency Allocation
Wavelength
Frequency
Gamma-rays
X-rays
3000 GHz
Infrared
0.1 m
300 GHz
1 mm
THF - terribly high frequency
30GHz
10 mm
EHF - extra high frequency
Micro Waves
3GHz
100 mm
SHF - super high frequency
300 MHz
1m
UHF - ultra high frequency
30 MHz
10 m
VHF - very high frequency
Radio Waves
3MHz
100 m
HF - high frequency
300KHz
1 Km
MF - medium frequency
30Khz
10 Km
LF - low frequency
3KHz
100 Km
VLF - very low frequency
Source Bekkers, R. and Smits, J., Mobile
Telecommunications, Artech, 2000.
6Frequency Regulations
- Frequencies from 9KHz to 300 MHZ in high demand
(especially VHF 30-300MHZ) - In wireless, lower frequencies (omnidirectional)
- Two unlicensed bands in the US (counterparts
elsewhere) - Industrial, Science, and Medicine (ISM) 2.4 GHz
- Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure
(UNII) 5.2 GHz - Regional, national, and international issues
- Procedures for military, emergency, air traffic
control, etc - Different agencies license and regulate
- www.fcc.gov - US
- www.open.gov.uk/radiocom -- for UK
- Others (e.g., ETSI, five agencies in Japan)
- Interferences across national borders handled
through Radio Communications Bureaus
7ITU (International Telecom Union)
- Headquartered in Geneva (next to UN)
- Several sectors
- ITU-R(radiocommunications)- several study groups
and World Radio Conferences (WCRs) - ITU-T (standards) - subsummed formerly CCITT
- ITU-D (development) - developing countries
8National Telecommunications and Information
Administration (NTIA - www.ntia.gov)
- NTIA is part of The United States Commerce
Department - Maintain a spectrum chart, dated March 1996, that
depicts the radio frequency spectrum allocations
to radio services operated within the United
States. - Graphically partitions the radio frequency
spectrum, extending from 9 kHz to 300 GHz, into
over 450 frequency bands - Copies of this chart can be viewed on line at
http//www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.html
and printed copies of this chart are available
from the U.S. Government Printing Office (ph 202
512 1800 stock 003-000-00652-2 cost is 6.00
9Location Based Services (LBSs)
- Techniques
- Cell-id based
- GPS assisted
- Angle of arrival
- Others
10Wireless Transmission
Antenna
Antenna
Transmitter
Receiver
- Wireless Communication systems consist of
- transmitters
- Antennas radiates electromagnetic energy into
air - Receivers
- In some cases, transmitters and receivers are on
same device, called transceivers (e.g., cellular
phones)
11Transmitters
Antenna
Amplifier
Mixer
Filter
Amplifier
Transmiter
Oscilator
- Suppose you want to generate a signal that is
sent at 900 MHz and - the original source generates a signal at 300
MHZ. - Amplifier - strengthens the initial signal
- Oscilator - creates a carrier wave of 600 MHz
- Mixer - combines original signal with oscilator
and produces 900 MHz - (does modulation, etc)
- Filter - selects correct frequency (required by
FCC) - Amplifier - Strengthens the signal before sending
it (higher f in some cases) - Receivers perform similar operations but in
reverse direction
12Antennas
- An antenna is an electrical conductor or system
of conductors to send/receive RF signals - Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy
into space - Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from
space - In two-way communication, the same antenna can be
used for transmission and reception
Directional Antenna (higher frequency)
Omnidirectional Antenna (lower frequency)
13Radiation Patterns
- Radiation pattern
- Graphical representation of radiation properties
of an antenna - Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
- Reception pattern
- Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation
pattern - Antenna Types
- Isotropic antenna (idealized)
- Radiates power equally in all directions
- Dipole antennas
- Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
- Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi
antenna) - Parabolic Reflective Antenna (highly focussed,
directional)
14Smart Antennas
- Basic idea propagate signals to follow objects
as they move around and minimize noise. - Mixture of
- Switched beam systems a number of fixed beams at
an antenna site the beam with least
interference and best signal strength is chosen. - Adaptive antennas array of antennas that can
adjust patterns based on noise, interference, and
location of objects - Great deal of activity
- Liberti, J. and Rappaport, T., Smart Antennas
for Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall
15Smart Antennas
16Terrestrial Microwave (1GHz to 40GHz)
- Description of common microwave antenna
- Most common Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
- Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
- Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving
antenna (relays used in between) - Located at substantial heights above ground level
- Applications
- Long haul telecommunications service (instead of
fiber, coax) -- requires less repeaters but line
of sight - Short point-to-point links between buildings
(e.g, closed circuit TV, LANs, bypass local
telephone companies) - Most common BW 4GHZ (can give up to 200 Mbps)
- Loss proportional to log (d/w)
17Satellite Microwave (1GHz to 20 GHz, typically)
- Description of communication satellite
- Microwave relay station
- Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers - Receives transmissions on one frequency band
(uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal, and
transmits it on another frequency (downlink) - Applications
- Television distribution (e.g., PBS uses
sattelites exclusively) - Long-distance telephone transmission between
telephone exchange offices - Private business networks (lease channels,
expensive)
18Broadcast Radio (30 MHz to 1GHz)
- Description of broadcast radio antennas
- Omnidirectional (main differentiator from
microwave) - Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
- Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment - Applications
- Broadcast radio
- VHF and part of the UHF band 30 MHZ to 1GHz
- Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
- Due to new apps, the frequency range is expanded
frequently - Infrared
- does not penetrate walls
- used in remote control devices
19Propagation Modes
20LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments
- Attenuation and attenuation distortion
- Free space loss
- Noise
- Atmospheric absorption
- Multipath
- Refraction
- Thermal noise
21Attenuation
- Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium - Attenuation factors for unguided media
- Received signal must have sufficient strength so
that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the
signal - Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher
than noise to be received without error - Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies,
causing distortion - Approach amplifiers that strengthen higher
frequencies
22Categories of Noise
- Thermal Noise
- Intermodulation noise
- Crosstalk
- Impulse Noise
23Multipath Propagation
24Types of Fading
- Fast fading
- Slow fading
- Flat fading
- Selective fading
- Rayleigh fading
- Rician fading
25Signal Encoding (Modulation)
- Modulation of digital signals
- When only analog transmission facilities are
available, digital to analog conversion required - Modulation of analog signals
- A higher frequency may be needed for effective
transmission - Modulation permits frequency division
multiplexing - PCM and variants used frequently
26Pulse Code Modulation
- Based on the sampling theorem (sample rate should
be higher than twice highest frequency) - Each analog sample is assigned a binary code
- Analog samples are referred to as pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM) samples - The digital signal consists of block of n bits,
where each n-bit number is the amplitude of a PCM
pulse - 8000 samples per second, 8 bits for levels (256)
27Pulse Code Modulation
Amplitude
Samples
This shows 12 samples, each sample represents the
amplitude of the wave. These samples as sent as
digital data and then reconstructed into the
original signal on the receiving side.
28Delta Modulation
- Analog input is approximated by staircase
function - Moves up or down by one quantization level (?) at
each sampling interval - The bit stream approximates derivative of analog
signal (rather than amplitude) - 1 is generated if function goes up
- 0 otherwise
29Delta Modulation
Analog Signal
Signal Amplitude
Staircase Function
Time
30Multiple Access Techniques
Session4
Session2
Session3
Session3
Session1
Session4
Frequency
Session2
Frequency
Session1
Time
Time
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) PCM, PSK
(6 ms frames) Used by ATT wireless, Bellsouth,
Ericson
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
All sessions based on a code
Rarely used at present
Frequency
Time
Spread spectrum, Direct Used by Sprint PCS, 3G
systems
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
31FDMA and TDMA
- FDMA
- FM radio divides the spectrum into 30 Khz
channels. - FDMA divides 30 Khz channels into 3 (10 KHz each)
- Base station cost is high and very limited
capacity - TDMA
- available since 1992
- each subscriber transmits at different times
- 6 millisecond frames, each divided into 1 ms time
slots - each time slot has a header and data
- errors may corrupt headers and cause time slots
and in some cases the whole frame is lost - TIA standard IS-54 defines the TDMA interface
between a mobile station and cell-site radio
(uses PCM for speech encoding, DQPSK for
modulation) - Call quality is similar to FDMA but can handle
more calls (ATT) - Several extensions of TDMA (can support 15 users
per voice channel)
32CDMA
- Based on spread spectrum - direct sequencing is
more prevalent (TIA IS-95) - Groups of bits from digitized speech are tagged
with a unique code that is associated with a
cellular call. - Several cellular calls are combined and
transmitted over 1.25MHz and then reassembled on
the receiver side - Receiver detects a signal by tuning to correct
phase position between incoming and locally
generated signals from code - Speech coder operates at a variable rate (fully
when user is talking) - Adjusts for near-far power adjustments (nearer
stations generate less powerful signals) - When powered on, the mobile system knows the CDMA
frequency, so it tunes to that frequency and
searches for a pilot signal (pilot signals
represent base stations) - Mobile station will pick the strongest pilot and
register - When moving from cell to cell, new pilot is
picked up
33TDMA versus CDMA Controversy
- TDMA and CDMA are accepted TIA (telecom Industry
Association) standards (IS-54, IS-95) - Hardware vendors are lobbying hard
- Many, many variants in industry
- Performance reports are conflicting and confusing
in terms of - Call clarity CDMA appears to be better but
questioned - Network capacity CDMA may be more efficient than
TDMA - Privacy CDMA codes provide more privacy
- Economy TDMA allows same equipment for multiple
users - Maturity TDMA is very mature (in use since
1992) - More features TDMA offers more but CDMA can do
it also
34Spread Spectrum
35Spread Spectrum
- Input is fed into a channel encoder
- Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth
- Signal is further modulated using sequence of
digits - Spreading code or spreading sequence
- Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random number
generator - Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of
signal to be transmitted - On receiving end, digit sequence is used to
demodulate the spread spectrum signal - Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover
data
36Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
- Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series
of radio frequencies - Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed
intervals - Channel sequence dictated by spreading code
- Receiver, hopping between frequencies in
synchronization with transmitter, picks up
message - Advantages
- Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips
- Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed
only at knocking out a few bits
37Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Energy
Data Bits
4 7 5 1 6 8 3 2
Frequency
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8
38FHSS Using MFSK
- MFSK signal is translated to a new frequency
every Tc seconds by modulating the MFSK signal
with the FHSS carrier signal - Large number of frequencies used
- Results in a system that is quite resistant to
jamming - Jammer must jam all frequencies
- With fixed power, this reduces the jamming power
in any one frequency band
39Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
- Each bit in original signal is represented by
multiple bits in the transmitted signal - Spreading code spreads signal across a wider
frequency band - Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits
used - One technique combines digital information stream
with the spreading code bit stream using
exclusive-OR (Figure 7.6)
40Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
- Basic Principles of CDMA
- D rate of data signal
- Break each bit into k chips
- Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern
- Chip data rate of new channel kD
41CDMA Example
- If k6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s
- For a 1 bit, A sends code as chip pattern
- ltc1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6gt
- For a 0 bit, A sends complement of code
- lt-c1, -c2, -c3, -c4, -c5, -c6gt
- Receiver knows senders code and performs
electronic decode function - ltd1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6gt received chip pattern
- ltc1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6gt senders code
42CDMA Example
- User A code lt1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1gt
- To send a 1 bit lt1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1gt
- To send a 0 bit lt1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1gt
- User B code lt1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1gt
- To send a 1 bit lt1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1gt
- Receiver receiving with As code
- (As code) x (received chip pattern)
- User A 1 bit 6 -gt 1
- User A 0 bit -6 -gt 0
- User B 1 bit 0 -gt unwanted signal ignored
43Coding and Error Control
44Error Control
- Mechanisms to detect and correct transmission
errors - Types of errors
- Lost PDU a PDU fails to arrive
- Damaged PDU PDU arrives with errors
- Error detection
- Receiver detects errors and discards PDUs
- Positive acknowledgement
- Destination returns acknowledgment of received,
error-free PDUs - Retransmission after timeout
- Source retransmits unacknowledged PDU
- Negative acknowledgement and retransmission
- Destination returns negative acknowledgment to
PDUs in error
45Coping with Data Transmission Errors
- Error detection codes
- Detects the presence of an error
- Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
- Block of data with error is discarded
- Transmitter retransmits that block of data
- Error correction codes, or forward correction
codes (FEC) - Designed to detect and correct errors
46Error Detection Process
- Transmitter
- For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check
bits) is calculated from data bits - Check bits are appended to data bits
- Receiver
- Separates incoming frame into data bits and check
bits - Calculates check bits from received data bits
- Compares calculated check bits against received
check bits - Detected error occurs if mismatch
47Wireless Transmission Errors
- Error detection requires retransmission
- Detection inadequate for wireless applications
- Error rate on wireless link can be high, results
in a large number of retransmissions - Long propagation delay compared to transmission
time - Best to correct errors by using
- Block Error Correction
- Turbo Codes
48Block Code (Error Correction)
- Hamming distance for 2 n-bit binary sequences,
the number of different bits - E.g., v1011011 v2110001 d(v1, v2)3
- For each data block, create a codeword
- Send the codeword
- If the code is invalid, look for data with
shortest hamming distance (possibly correct code)
- Datablock (k2) Codeword (n5)
- 00 00000
- 01 00111
- 10 11001
- 11 11110
- Suppose you receive codeword 00100 (error)
- Closest is 00000 (only one bit different)
49Turbo Codes
- Good block error correction requires large
codewords - Large codewords are complex to process and waste
bandwidth - Turbo codes break the codewords into two
- Two encoders on transmitters
- Two decoders on receivers
- Shown to be very efficient
- Main limitation decoding is complex and
introduces delays - Many applications in deep space communications
- Very active area of work
50Summary
- Wireless Network Classification
- Transmitters/Receivers
- Antennas
- Frequency Allocation
- Propagation Modes
- Noise characteristics
- Signal Encoding
- Error Detection and Correction