Children

1
Children

• Chapters 2 3
• The Science of Child Development and Biological
  Beginnings

2
The Scientific Research Approach

• Scientific method
• Used to discover accurate information

Conceptualize problem
Collect information (data)
Draw conclusions
Revise conclusions and theory
3
Five Major Theories

• Psychoanalytic
• Cognitive
• Behavioral and social cognitive
• Ethological
• Ecological

4
Psychoanalytic Theories Freuds Psychosexual
Theory

• Three structures of personality
• Id
• Ego
• Superego

5
Psychoanalytic Theories Eriksons Psychosocial
Theory

• Eight stages of development
• Primary human motivation is social
• Eight stages unfold over the life span
• At each stage, unique developmental task
  confronts individuals with crisis that must be
  resolved

6
Eriksons Life-Span Stages
Fig. 2.3
7
Piagets Cognitive Developmental Theory

• Children actively construct their understanding
  of the world
• Assimilation incorporation of new information
  into existing knowledge
• Accommodation adjusting knowledge to fit new
  information and experience

8
Piagets Four Stages of Cognitive Development
9
Vygotskys Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

• Sociocultural cognitive theory
• Culture and social interaction guide cognitive
  development
• Social interaction with more-skilled adults and
  peers advances cognitive developmentlearning to
  adapt

10
Information-Processing Theory

• Comparing computer to human brain
• Hardware analogous to brain
• Software analogous to cognition
• Emphasizes how individuals manipulate
  information, monitor it, and strategize about it

11
Behavioral Theories

• Pavlovs Classical Conditioning
• Neutral stimulus paired with active stimulus to
  produce response
• Watson little Albert and a white rat
• Generalizing fear as a involuntary response

12

• Skinners Operant Conditioning
• Consequences of behavior changes probability of
  behaviors occurrence use of punishments and
  rewards

13
Social Cognitive Theories

• Banduras Social Cognitive Theory
• Observational learning use imitation or modeling
  to adopt behaviors
• Emphasizes behavior, environment, and
  person/cognition interactions

14
Ethological Theory

• Behavior
• Strong influence of biology and evolution
• Characterized by critical or sensitive periods
  for some experiences
• Lorenz imprinting is rapid, innate learning
  within a critical period of time
• Bowlbys view of attachment

15
Ecological Theory

• Bronfenbrenners view that development influenced
  by five environmental systems
• Microsystem
• Mesosystem
• Exosystem
• Macrosystem
• Chronosystem

16
An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation

• Orientation that does not follow any one
  theoretical approach
• Selects whatever is considered the best in each
  theory

17
Methods for Collecting Data

• Laboratory observation
• Naturalistic observation
• Surveys and interviews
• Standardized Tests
• Psychophysiological measures
• Case Study

18
Research Designs

• Descriptive research observes and records
  behavior
• Correlational research strength of relationship
  between two or more events or characteristics
• Correlation coefficient degree of association
  between two variables ranges from -1.0 to 1.0

19

• Experimental Research
• Experiment one or more factors is manipulated
  while all other factors are held constant (shows
  cause and effect)
• Independent Variableone researcher controls
• Dependent Variableone measured
• Experimental groupgets active IV
• Control groupsgets nothing or placebo
• Subjects are randomly assigned to groups

20
Principles of the Experimental Strategy
21
Time Span of Research

• Cross-sectional approach individuals of
  different ages are compared at one time
• Longitudinal approach same individuals studied
  over period of time, usually several years or
  more
• Cross-sequential approach different age groups
  studied over a period of time

22
Conducting Ethical Research

• Rights of participants and responsibilities of
  researchers
• Informed consent
• Confidentiality
• Debriefing
• Deception

23
Thinking Critically About Research

• Be cautious about media reporting
• Dont assume
• Dont overgeneralize
• Dont accept a single study
• Dont accept causal conclusions from
  correlational studies
• Always consider the source

24
The Genetic Process

• DNA and the Collaborative Gene
• Life begins as a single cell each has replica of
  original code
• Chromosomes threadlike structures that come in
  23 pairs, one member of each pair coming from
  each parent

25
The Genetic Process

• DNA The Collaborative Gene
• DNA complex molecule that contains genetic
  information
• Genes units of hereditary information composed
  of DNA each has its own function

26
Cells, Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
27
The Genetic Process

• Mitosis, Meiosis, and Fertilization
• Mitosis cells nucleus duplicates itself
• Meiosis cell division to form eggs and sperm (or
  gametes)

28

• Reproduction begins when female gamete (ovum)
  fertilized by male gamete (sperm)
• Zygote single cell formed through fertilization
  23 pairs of chromosomes

29

• Sources of Variability
• Genotype genetic heritage
• Phenotype genotype expressed in observed and
  measurable characteristics

30

• Dominant-Recessive Genes Principle
• Recessive gene is influential only if both genes
  are recessive
• Sex-Liked Genes X-linked inheritance
• Polygenetic Inheritance

31
Fig. 3.5
Genetic Principles
32
Prenatal Diagnostic Tests

• Ultrasound sonography high-frequency sound waves
  directed into abdomen
• Chorionic villi sampling sample of the placenta
• Amniocentesis sample of amniotic fluid
• Maternal blood or triple screening

33
Infertility and Reproduction Technology

• Infertility inability to conceive after 12
  months of regular intercourse
• In vitro fertilization (IVF)
• Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)
• Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)
• Adoption screened in/out couples

34
Behavior Genetics

• Behavior genetics influence of heredity and
  environment on individual trait and developmental
  differences
• Twin studies compare behavioral similarity of
  identical (monozygotic) twins with behavioral
  similarity of fraternal (dizygotic) twins

35

• -Adoption studies discover whether adopted
  children are more like adoptive parents or
  biological parents

36
The Epigenetic View

• Development is the result of ongoing,
  bi-directional interchange between heredity and
  environment