Learning Objectives

1
Motivation, Satisfaction and Performance

• Learning Objectives
• Introduce you to the relationships among
  motivation, satisfaction, and performance
• Present the different theories of motivation that
  influence our behavior

2

• Gallup Poll estimates that if companies could get
  3.7 more work out of each employee, the
  equivalent of 18 more minutes for each 8 hour
  shift, the gross domestic product in the US would
  swell by 355 billion.
• Motivation (Kanfer, 1990) anything that provides
  direction, intensity, and persistence to behavior
• Motivation is not directly observable inferred
  from behaviors
• Performance concerns those behaviors directed
  toward the organizations mission or goals, or
  the products and services resulting from those
  behaviors
• Performance is a function of ability, motivation,
  and situational constraints/facilitating
  conditions

3

• Job satisfaction affective feelings, attitudes
  about the job itself, pay, promotion or
  educational opportunities, supervision,
  coworkers, workload
• Those who are more satisfied with their jobs tend
  to engage in more organizational citizenship
  behaviors,OCBs (Organ Ryan, 1995)
• OCB examples help another employee with project,
  fill in for another employee, donate sick time
  for employee who has sick child

4
Motivating Followers

• Need Theory
• Assume we share common set of basic needs
• Needs internal states of tension or arousal
  people are motivated to change
• Maslow

5

• Implications for Managers
• Research doesn't support all of Maslow's theory,
  but people do recognize higher lower order
  needs.
• Job-based approaches using Maslow would seek to
  add esteem enhancers into an employee's job
  design, or allow for more social interaction in
  the job.
• Leadership-based approaches would appeal to the
  subordinate's need for esteem and fulfill it
  directly. The leader becomes the reinforcer and
  the promoter to satisfy esteem, actualization, or
  perhaps social needs of the subordinate.

6

• Individual Differences in Motivation
• Need for Achievement
• Degree to which a person strives to accomplish
  socially acceptable endeavors and activities
• Those with higher need tend to exert more effort
  to accomplish work assignments, goals, objectives
  (McClelland, 1975)
• Predicts success in school (Gough, 1987),
  military (Curphy Otsen, 1993) and in managers
  (Nilsen, 1995)

7

• Implications for Managers
• Studies have shown that entrepreneurs are
  typically only high on the need for Achievement,
  while managers in bureaucratic organizations are
  high in need for Power and low in need for
  Affiliation.
• Like when we think about different personalities,
  the profiles of our subordinates should lead us
  to a contingency approach to leadership - one
  tailored somewhat to the individuals within our
  span of control.
• Job-based approaches emphasize proper selection
  and assignments so that the best match can be
  made between individual differences and the jobs.
  
• Leadership-based approaches match special and
  expanded duties to the work needed. Leaders can
  help the organization not to overlook the needs
  for affiliation, power, and achievement within
  the workforce.

8

• Intrinsic Motivation
• Behavior motivated for it own sake, for the
  personal satisfaction and increased feelings of
  competence or control one gets from doing it
• Implication Provide rewards for intrinsically
  motivating tasks. However, must be careful the
  rewards are not perceived as controlling, but are
  perceived as informational

9

• Cognitive Theories
• Goal Setting Locke Latham (1990)
• posit that goals are one of the most
• powerful determinants of behavior
• Difficult and specific goals consistently related
  to higher effort and performance than do your
  best
• Goals must be attainable to be accepted
• Goal commitment self-set equally effective as
  assigned, as long as leader is perceived to have
  legitimate authority, expressed confidence in
  followers, and provided clear standards of
  excellence
• Feedback Followers exert greatest effort when
  goals are accompanied by feedback

10

• Expectancy Theory
• Assumptions
• Motivated performance is the result of conscious
  choice
• People will do what they believe will provide
  them the higher (or surest) rewards
• Effort-to-performance probability (Expectancy)
• Performance-to-outcome probability
  (Instrumentality)
• Valence, value of the reward

11

• Expectancy asks "If I make an effort am I likely
  to succeed at the performance?"
• Instrumentality asks "If I perform as required,
  will I receive the reward?"
• Valence asks "If I receive the reward, is it a
  valuable reward in my eyes?"
• IF the answers are all "yes" then I'm motivated
  to perform. If "no" then I'm not. Clearly the
  answers may be not so certain, and so researchers
  will compute percentages at each question and
  multiply to find an overall motivation number.
• Implication Greater motivation will result when
• Person can perform task adequately if they put
  forth the effort
• Person will be rewarded if they do it
• Person values the reward

12

• Implications for Managers
• Expectancy theory is perhaps the most useful tool
  in helping to make the workplace attain higher
  performance.
• It is perhaps most useful in Job-based
  approaches.
• Pay for performance plans seek to strengthen the
  instrumentality (the connection between the
  performance and the reward).
• Most pay systems don't, so what connection do
  they strengthen?.
• Perhaps seniority/service.
• Promotion and recognition programs are focused
  upon being instrumental.
• Training programs and successful prior job
  experiences strengthen expectancy.
• Leadership-based approaches emphasize the value
  of rewards, particularly when rewards aren't
  financial. Leaders also clarify the expectancies
  and instrumentalities for employees.

13

• Situational Approaches
• Job Characteristics Model
• Hackman and Oldham (1976, 1980) Workers will be
  more motivated if their tasks
• Are performed beginning to end (task identity)
• Are meaningful (task significance)
• Provide ample feedback (feedback)
• Allow considerable latitude in deciding how to
  accomplish them (autonomy)
• Require use of a variety of skills (skill
  variety)
• Growth need strength
• Implications Implement as many job
  characteristics as possible

14

• Operant Approach
• Thorndikes Law of Effect
• Rewards
• Punishments
• Research rewards tend to work better than
  punishments, especially when administered in a
  consistent manner (e.g., Stajkovic Luthans,
  2001 Podsakoff Todor, 1985)

15
Leaders in History

• Bill Parcels, Coach
• Knack for knowing how to motivate
• different players in different ways
• Mind games, telling a player there is no way
• he can outperform the superstars on the
• opposing team
• Has yelled at players to motivate them to achieve
  higher standards
• May act like a best friend or may challenge
  another to do better

16

• Operant Principles for Implementation
• Leadership practitioners need to
• clearly specify what behaviors are important
• determine if those behaviors are currently being
  punished, rewarded, or ignored
• find out what followers actually find rewarding
  and punishing
• be wary of creating perceptions of inequity when
  administering individually tailored rewards (be
  clear and consistent with rewards)

17

• not limit themselves to administering
  organizationally sanctioned rewards and
  punishments (social recognition and performance
  feedback resulted productivity improvements in
  followers of 24 and 20, respectively Stajkovic
  Luthans)
• should administer rewards and punishments in a
  contingent manner whenever possible

18

• Implications for Managers
• People do not like to feel that they are being
  manipulated like a household pet, and so there is
  much resistance to having one's behavior
  modified.
• However, reinforcement is at the heart of most
  organizational systems.
• The biggest resistance is where the leader uses
  contrived or insincere reinforcers in a thinly
  disguised attempt to get the worker to do
  something.
• Job-based approaches build reinforcers into jobs
  and personnel systems.
• Leadership-based approaches build reinforcement
  tools schedules into their personal approach
  with subordinates, but in a sincere, honest
  manner.

19

• Equity Theory
• Inputs (e.g., education, training, experience,
  effort, time, concentration)
• Outcomes (e.g., pay, promotion, respect)
• Ratio personal IO ? others IO
• Overpayment or underpayment inequity, or equity
• Ways to Restore Equity
• Cognitive
• Behavioral

20

• Implications for Managers
• Exchange and justice theories receive a lot of
  attention in research at the workplace.
• Workers often complain about the lack of equity,
  or worse, adjust down their performance to
  compensate.
• Job-based approaches set up fair performance
  appraisal reward systems. Complaint/grievance
  procedures also enhance perceptions of procedural
  justice.
• Leadership-based approaches enforce such systems,
  but leaders can also correct inequities, and/or
  refocus the employee to a more appropriate
  reference person. Leaders should also be aware
  that workers tend to overestimate the "deal" they
  think their bosses have.