Teaching Individual Words:

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Teaching Individual Words One Size Does Not Fit
All!
mommy
scowl
placid
a
annoy
Michael F. Graves University of Minnesota,
Emeritus mgraves_at_umn.edu IRA Annual
Convention Atlanta, Georgia May, 2008
undignified
the
antidisestablishmentarianism
kitty
FLAGRANT
humungous
unreal
apathy
timid
reluctant
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bonnie_graves_at_msn.com
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(No Transcript)
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Teaching Individual Words One Size Does Not
Fit All Michael F. Graves
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The Importance of Vocabulary Vocabulary knowledge
is one of the best indicators of verbal
ability. Vocabulary knowledge in kindergarten and
first grade is a significant predictor or reading
comprehension in the middle and secondary
grades. Vocabulary difficulty strongly influences
the readability of text. In fact, vocabulary is
far and away the most significant factor
influencing text difficulty. Teaching vocabulary
can improve reading comprehension for both native
English speakers and English learners. (Graves,
2006, 2007)
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The Vocabulary Learning Task The vocabulary
learning task is huge. The average fourth grader
probably knows 5,000-10,000 words. The average
high school graduate probably knows 50,000
words. To acquire this extensive vocabulary, he
or she has learned something like 3,500 words a
year. This translates to learning 10 words a day.
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Vocabulary Deficits Some students face
debilitating vocabulary deficits. Many children
of poverty enter school with vocabularies have
the size of their middle-class counterparts
(Hart Risley, 1995, 2003). Once in school, they
continue to learn words at about half the rate of
their peers. In the intermediate grades and high
school, their vocabularies are still half the
size of those of theirpeers, possibly less. The
same is true of many English learners.

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Assisting Students in Building Strong
Vocabularies Helping average students achieve
vocabularies of 50,000 words is a very
substantial task. Helping students with small
vocabularies catch up with their peers is an even
more substantial task. Only a rich and
multifaceted vocabulary program is likely to help
students accomplish these tasks (Baumann
Kaméenui, 2004 Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle,
Watts-Taffe, 2006 Graves, 2006 Stahl Nagy,
2006).
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A Four-Pronged Vocabulary Program Frequent,
varied, and extensive language experiences Teachin
g individual words Teaching word-learning
strategies Fostering word consciousness
See Baumann, Ware, and Edwards (2007) for a study
validating this program.
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Teaching Individual Words Is Just One Part of a
Comprehensive and Multifaceted Vocabulary Program

• With something like 3,500 words to learn each
  year, teaching individual words is just one part
  of the comprehensive and multi-part program such
  as that outlined below and needs to recognized as
  a part of that whole.

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• Frequent, Varied, and Extensive Language
  Experiences
• Reading, writing, discussion, and listening
• The emphasis on these four modalities and the
  teaching/learning approaches used will vary over
  time.
• With younger and less proficient readers, there
  is more discussion and listening and more
  teacher-led work.
• With older and more proficient readers, there is
  more reading and writing and more independent
  work.

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• Teaching Word-Learning Strategies
• Using context
• Learning and using word parts
• Using glossaries and the dictionary
• Recognizing and using cognates (for Spanish
  speakers)

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• Some Types of Word Consciousness Activities
• Creating a Word-Rich Environment
• Recognizing and Promoting Adept Diction
• Promoting Word Play
• Fostering Word Consciousness Through Writing
• Involving Students in Original Investigations
• Teaching Students about Words
• (Graves Watts-Taffe, 2002, 2007)

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Teaching Individual Words The Word-Learning
Tasks Students Face

• Building a basic oral vocabulary
• Learning to read known words
• Learning to read new words representing known
  concepts
• Learning to read new words representing new and
  challenging concepts
• Learning new meanings for known words
• Clarifying and enriching the meanings of known
  words
• Moving words into students expressive
  vocabularies
• Building English learners vocabularies
• Teaching vocabulary to improve comprehension

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Teaching Individual Words Levels of Word
Knowledge

• No knowledge
• Very general sense
• Narrow, context-bound knowledge
• Having a basic knowledge of a word and being able
  to use it in many appropriate situations.
• Rich, decontextualized knowledge
• 
  Beck, McKeown, Kucan, 2002
  slightly
  modified

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Teaching Individual Words Identifying Words To
Teach1

• Word lists (Biemiller, in press Chall Dale,
  1995, Coxhead, 2000 Fry, 2006 Hiebert, 2005)
• Testing or asking students (Anderson Freebody,
  1983 White, Slater, Graves, 1989)
• Selecting tier two words (Beck, McKeown,
  Kucan, 2002)
• Considering five questions (Graves, 2006, in
  press)

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• Identifying Words to Teach2
• Frys 1,000 Instant Words (Fry Kress, 2007).
  The 1,000 most frequent words
• Dales list of 3,000 Words (Chall Dale, 1995).
  3,000 words that most 4th graders know
• Hiebert's Word Zones 5,586/3,913 Words grouped
  into set of 300, 500, 1000, and 2000 words.
  The 4,000 most frequent word families
  http//www.textproject.org/library/resources
• Biemiller's Words Worth Teaching in
  Kindergarten-Grade Two and in Grades Three-Six
  (Biemiller, in press). One list of about 2,000
  words and one of about 4,000 words.
• Coxhead's Academic Word (Coxhead, 2000) 570 word
  families that occur reasonably frequently over a
  range of academic texts. http//language.massey.ac
  .nz/staff/awl/corpus.shtml

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Identifying Words To Teach3 Considering five
questions

• Is understanding the word important to
  understanding the selection?
• Does this word represent a specific concept
  students definitely need to know?
• Are students able to use context or
  structural-analysis skills to discover the word's
  meaning?
• Can working with this word be useful in
  furthering students context, structural
  analysis, or dictionary skills?
• How useful is this word outside of the reading
  selection currently being taught?

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Some Characteristics of Effective Instruction for
Individual Words

• Instruction that involves both definitional
  information and contextual information is
  markedly stronger than instruction that involves
  only one of these.
• Instruction that involves activating prior
  knowledge and comparing and contrasting meanings
  is stronger still.
• More lengthy and more robust instruction that
  involves students in actively manipulating
  meanings, making inferences, searching for
  applications, using prior knowledge, and frequent
  encounters is still stronger.
• Stronger vocabulary instruction takes more time,
  and with the number of words to be learned we
  very often do not have more time.

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Three Levels of Effective Instruction for
Individual Words

• Level One. (1) Pronounce the word, (2) provide a
  student friendly definition, and (3) use the word
  in a contextually rich sentence.
• Level Two. (1) Pronounce the word, (2) provide a
  student friendly definition, (3) use the word in
  a contextually rich sentence, and (4) provide an
  activity that requires students to activate prior
  knowledge or compare and contrast meanings.
• Level Three. (1) Pronounce the word, (2) provide
  a student friendly definition, (3) use the word
  in a contextually rich sentence, (4) provide an
  activity that requires students to activate prior
  knowledge or compare and contrast meanings, and
  (5) and involve students in actively manipulating
  meanings, making inferences, and/or searching for
  applications.

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Some Things Not to Do in Teaching Individual Words

• Merely mentioning word meanings and assuming that
  you have therefore taught them

Giving students words out of context and asking
them to look up the words in the dictionary
Asking students to use context before teaching
them how to do so
Doing speeded trials with individual words
Giving students only a definition or only the
word in context
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• PROVIDING STUDENT-FRIENDLY DEFINITIONSA KEY TO
  ANY METHOD OF INSTRUCTION
• Providing student-friendly definitionsones that
  are accurate and that students will understandis
  no mean task. Below are a definition of dazzling
  from the dictionary on my computer and a
  student-friendly definition from Beck, McKeown,
  and Kucan (2003).
• bright enough to deprive someone of sight
  temporarily
• If something is dazzling, that means that its
  so bright that you can hardly look at it.
• The Collins COBUILD New Students Dictionary
  (Harper-Collins, 2006) and the Longman Study
  Dictionary of American English (2006) provide
  many excellent examples of student-friendly
  definitions.

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BUILDING A BASIC ORAL VOCABULARY SHARED BOOK
READING
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• Characteristics of Effective Shared Book Reading
• Both the adult readers and children are active
  participants.
• Involves several readings
• Focuses attention on words
• The reading is fluent, engaging, and lively.
• Deliberately stretches students and scaffolds
  their efforts
• Employs carefully selected words and books

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Biemillers Approach to Shared Book Reading

• Select books that are interesting, enjoyable, and
  contain the sorts of words you want to teach 30
  books for the year.
• Select words known by some but not all students,
  not Becks tier 2 words. 24 words per book
• Day 1 Read the book once, including some
  comprehension questions.
• Days 2-4. Read the book 3 times teaching 8 of
  the 24 words each time. Definitions should be
  short and student friendly.
• Day 5. Review all 24 words in new contexts but
  with the same definitions.
• Biemiller Slonim, 2006

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Sales Graves First 4,000 Word Approach to
Shared Book Reading

• It is individualized and web-based, with a lot of
  interaction and games.
• It is targeted at students with small English
  listening vocabularies in grades 1-4.
• It teaches the most frequent 4,000 word families.
• Students move through the program at their own
  pace, and can move up or back depending on their
  performance on online tests on each of 400 units,
  which each deal with 10 words.
• In each unit, students are only taught those of
  the 10 words that the pretest indicated they do
  not know.
• Sales Graves, 2007

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• What It Means to Know the Most Frequent 4,000
  Words
• The words we are teaching are 3,913 word families
  (base words and their common inflected forms)
  taken from a list developed by Hiebert (2005).
  Hiebert divided the words into four zones the
  first 300 words, the next 500 words, the next
  1,200 words, and the final 2,000 words.
• The value of knowing these words is shown in the
  next four slides, which show a passage from a
  biography written for upper elementary students
  and the words that would be familiar to students
  who knew (1) only the 300 words in Zone 1, (2)
  the 800 words in Zones 1-2, the 2,000 words in
  Zones 1-3, and the 4,000 words in Zones 1-4.

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(1) Knowing only the 300 words in Zone 1, a
student could read only the words shown
here. Could it be an ________? The year before,
had seen one for the first time
when his mother took him to a ______ __________
in , ________. He had _______,
, as the _____ ____ a _______
_____________ by ________ _______ on the _______
of a __________ that was ______ on the ______.
Now _____ an ________ was right here in
_________, and about to ___ over his house. Not
_______ to a thing, _______ ______ the
______ and _______ up the _______ ____ of the
house to its ____. From there he had a good ____
of the ___________ _____, _______ ____ the
place. And in the ___, ______ ever
______, he saw the _____.
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(2) Knowing the 800 words in Zones 1 and 2, a
student could read the words shown in this
version. Could it be an ? The year
before, had seen one for the first time
when his mother took him to a
__________ in ____ _____, ________. He had
watched, , as the gave a
by ________ _______ on the _______ of a
___________ that was ______ on the ground. Now
maybe an ________ was right here in _________,
and about to ___ over his house. Not _______ to
____ a thing, _______ opened the window and
_______ up the _______ ____ of the house to its
____. From there he had a good view of the
___________ River, _______ _______ past the
_______ place. And in the sky, coming ever
______, he saw the _____.
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(3) Knowing the 2,000 words in Zones 1-3, a
student could read the words shown in this
version. Could it be an airplane? The year
before, Charles had seen one for the first time
when his mother took him to a flying __________
in ____ _____, Virginia. He had watched,
_________, as the _____ gave a _______
_____________ by ________ oranges on the _______
of a __________ that was ______ on the ground.
Now maybe an airplane was right here in
_________, and about to fly over his house. Not
_______ to ____ a thing, Charles opened the
window and climbed up the _______ roof of the
house to its ____. From there he had a good view
of the ___________ River, _______ ________ past
the __________ place. And in the sky, coming
ever closer, he saw the plane.
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(4) Knowing the 4,000 words in Zones 1-4, a
student would be able to read everything in the
version below that not in grey. Could it be an
airplane? The year before, Charles had seen one
for the first time when his mother took him to a
flying exhibition in Fort Myer, Virginia. He had
watched, enthralled, as the pilot gave a bombing
demonstration by dropping oranges on the outline
of a battleship that was traced on the ground.
Now maybe an airplane was right here in
Minnesota, and about to fly over his house. Not
wanting to miss a thing, Charles opened the
window and climbed up the sloping roof of the
house to its peak. From there he had a good view
of the Mississippi River, flowing languidly past
the Lindbergh place. And in the sky, coming ever
closer, he saw the plane.
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First 4,000 Words Opening Screen
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Story Level Listening Pre-Assessment The Tree
House Studio
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First 4,000 Words Cozy Cave
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Shared Book Reading Level 2
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Sample Game Format
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RICH AND POWERFUL INSTRUCTION

• Semantic mapping (Heimlich Pittleman, 1986)
• Semantic feature analysis (Pittleman et al.,
  1991)
• Vocabulary visits (Blachowicz Obrochta,
  2005)
• Robust instruction (Beck, McKeown, Kucan,
  2002)
• Frayer method (Frayer, Frederick,
  Klausmeier, 1969)

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Semantic Mapping

1. Put a word representing a central concept on the
   board, overhead, or lcd.
2. Ask students to work in groups listing as many
   words related to the central concept as they can.
3. Display students words grouped in broad
   categories.
4. Have students name the categories and perhaps
   suggest additional ones.
5. Discuss with students the central concept, the
   other words, the categories, and their
   interrelationships.

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Semantic Mapping Example
Conditions
Owners Run down
Hard to reach Small
Make good money
Crowded Don't live
there Drab
Often don't care
TENEMENT Costs
Tenants Not cheap
People without a lot of money
Lower than some places New immigrants
Too high City
people
Large families
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Semantic Feature Analysis
1. Construct a grid that contains a set of
related words on one axis and a list of features
that each of the words may or may not have on the
other axis. 2. Initially, show students a
completed grid and discuss what the checks and
pluses indicate. 3. Later, show students grids
with the terms and attributes filled in but
without the pluses and minuses and ask students
to insert them. 4. Later still, show grids with
some terms and some attributes, ask students to
add to both the list of related words and the
list of attributes, and then to fill in the
pluses and minuses. 5. After students are
proficient in working with partially completed
grids you supply, they can create their own grids
for sets of related words they suggest.
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Semantic Feature Analysis Example
narrow wide paved unpaved for walking for
driving __________________________________________
________________________________ path -
-
- ________________________________________________
__________________________ trail - -
- _________________
__________________________________________________
_______ road -
_____________________________
_____________________________________________ lane
-
_________________________________________
_________________________________ boulevard -
- -
_____________________________________________
_____________________________ freeway -
- -
________________________________________________
__________________________ turnpike -
- -
________________________________________________
__________________________
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Vocabulary Visits

• Model the instruction on the plan and activities
  of a field trip.
• Identify a topic, thematically oriented
  informational texts, and key words.
• Choose a photo to stimulate discussion and anchor
  a large poster.
• Have students list the words they know about the
  topic and put them on the poster.
• Take a field trip using the poster Ask students
  for words they see, hear, and feel. Put them on
  the poster on post-its, grouping related words.
• Read sections of the books aloud. Have kids give
  "thumbs up" when they hear one of the words. Add
  key words to the poster as necessary.
• Finish the books. Reorganize words as seems
  appropriate
• Do extension activities like word games, sorting,
  writing, and reading new topically related books.
• Evaluate with such activities as listing words
  and writing summaries of the books, plays, or
  poetry that focus on the topic.

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Vocabulary Visits Some Skeleton Words Taught
bone skull leg arm wrist ankle foot ribs b
rain spine backbone protect
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Vocabulary Visits Number of Words Learned
Student Before V V After V V 1 8
20 2 7 23 3 4 6 4
6 23 5 7 27 6 4 32 7
4 13 8 7 8 9 5
10 10 7 26 11 3 10 12
4 18 13 5 11 14 5
11 15 0 6 16 0 6 17
0 14 18 0 19
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Robust Instruction

• Begin with a student-friendly definition.
• Have students work with the word more than once.
• Provide the word in more than one context.
• Engage students in activities in which they deal
  with various facets of the target words meaning
  and with investigating relationships between the
  target word and other words.
• Have students create uses for the word.
• Encourage students to use the word outside of
  class.

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Robust Instruction Partial Example

• 1. ambitiousreally wanting to succeed at
  something
• 3. Susan's ambition to become an Olympic high
  jumper was so strong that she was willing to
  practice six hours a day.
• 3. Rupert had never been an ambitious person,
  and after his accident he did little other than
  watch television.
• 4. Would you like to have a really ambitious
  person as a friend? Why or why not?
• Which of the following better demonstrates
  ambition? (a) A stock broker gets up every day
  and goes to work. (b) A stock broker stays late
  at work every day, trying to close as many deals
  as possible before leaving.
• 4. How likely is it that an ambitious person is
  lethargic? How likely is it than an ambitious
  person would be energetic?
• 5. Write a brief story showing an ambitious
  person.

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Frayer Method

1. Define the new concept.
2. Distinguish between the new concept and similar
   concepts it might be confused with.
3. Give examples, and explain why they are examples.
4. Give non-examples, and explain why they are
   non-examples.
5. Present students with examples and non-examples,
   and ask students to distinguish between them.
6. Have students present examples and non-examples,
   explain why they are one or the other, and
   provide feedback.

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Frayer Method Partial Example

1. A globe is a ball like model of planet.
2. A globe is different from a map because a map is
   flat.
3. The most common globe is a globe of the earth. A
   less common globe is a globe of another planet
   like Mars.
4. A map of California. Directions about how to get
   to a friends house.
5. A photograph of New York taken from an
   airplane.A ball-shaped model of the moon.
6. student-generated examples

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INTRODUCTORY INSTRUCTION

• Providing glossaries
• Using pictures
• Context/dictionary/discussion
• Context/relationship

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Providing glossaries Probably the least
time-consuming and least intrusive thing you can
do to assist students with the vocabulary of
selections they are reading is to provide
glossaries of important terms. tsu-na-mi. A
large wave that can occur after an underwater
earthquake
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Using Pictures Solar system. The nine planets
that revolve around our sun make up our solar
system. Someday it may be possible for humans to
explore all the planets in our solar system, but
that will not be soon.
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• Context/Dictionary/Discussion Procedure
• Give students the word in a fairly rich
  context.
• For example, admire We admire the paintings
  of great artists at the museum.
• Ask them to look it up in the dictionary.
• Discuss the definitions they come up with.

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Context-Relationship Procedure Create a brief
paragraph that uses the target word three or four
times. Follow the paragraph with a
multiple-choice item that checks students
understanding of the word.

1. Explain the purpose of the procedure.
2. Pronounce the word to be taught.
3. Read the paragraph in which the word appears.
4. Read the possible definitions, and ask students
   to choose the best one.
5. Pause to give students time to check a
   definition, give them the correct answer, and
   answer any questions they have.
6. Read the word and its definition a final time.

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Context-Relationship Procedure Example
Gathered The children gathered eggs from the
henhouse. Then they put the eggs in a basket.
Gathering eggs was something they did every day
when they visited their grandmothers farm.
Gathered means that a person picks up and
collects something. Gathered means
A. dropping things. B. picking up things.
C. sharing ideas.
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MAJOR POINTS OF THE PRESENTATION When it comes
to teaching individual words, one size does not
fit all because

• There are a variety of effective methods of
  teaching individual words. I have classified
  these as Introductory Methods and Rich and
  Powerful Methods.
• There are so many words to teach that we cannot
  teach all of them in depth.
• There are various levels of work knowledge that
  we seek to create in students.
• There are various word learning taskslearning a
  basic oral vocabulary, learning to read known
  words, learning new labels, learning new
  concepts, etc.
• Both students and teachers need variety in
  instruction.

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Some Recent Vocabulary Books Baumann Kame'enui.
(Eds.). (2004). Vocabulary instruction
Research to practice. New York Guilford. Beck,
McKeown, Kucan. (2002). Bringing words to
life Robust vocabulary instruction. New York
Guilford. Biemiller. (in press). Words worth
teaching. Columbus, OH SRA/McGraw-Hill. Hart
Risley. (1995). Meaningful differences in the
everyday experiences of young American children.
Baltimore Paul H. Brookes Publishing
Company. Hiebert Kamil. (Eds.). (2005).
Teaching and learning vocabulary Bringing
research to practice. Mahway, NJ
Erlbaum. Stahl Nagy. (2006). Teaching word
meanings. Mahwah, NJ Erlbaum. Wagner, R. K.,
Muse, A. E., Tannenbaum, K. R. (Eds.).
(2007). Vocabulary acquisition Implications for
reading comprehension New York Guilford.
Graves. (2006). The vocabulary book Learning
and instruction. New York Teachers College
Press, IRA, and NCTE.
Graves. (in press). Teaching individual words
One size does notfiit all. New York Teachers
College Press and IRA.
57
References
Anderson, R. C., Freebody, P. (1983). Reading
comprehension and the assessment and acquisition
of word knowledge. In B. Hudson (Ed.), Advances
in reading/language research (pp. 231-256).
Greenwich, CT JAI Press. Baumann, J. F.,
Kame'enui, E. J. (Eds.). (2004). Vocabulary
instruction Research to practice. New York
Guilford. Beck, McKeown, Kucan. (2002).
Bringing words to life Robust vocabulary
instruction. New York Guilford. Blachowicz, C.
L. Z., Fisher, P. J. L, Ogle, D., Watts-Taffe,
S. (2006). Vocabulary Questions from the
classroom. Reading Research Quarterly, 41,
524-539. Blachowicz, C. L. Z., Obrochta, C.
(2005). Vocabulary visits Virtual field trips
for content vocabulary development. The Reading
Teacher, 59, 262-268. Biemiller, A. (in press).
Words worth teaching. Columbus, OH
SRE/McGraw-Hill. Biemiller, A. Boote, C.
(2006). An effective method for building meaning
vocabulary in primary grades. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 98, 44 62. Chall, J.
S., Dale, E. (1995). Readability revisited
The new Dale-Chall readability formula.
Cambridge, MA Brookline Books. Collins COBUILD
new students dictionary (3rd ed., 2005).
Glasglow, Scotland HarperCollins. Coxhead, A.
(2000). A new academic word list. TESOL
Quarterly, 34, 213-238. Frayer, D. A., Frederick,
W. D., Klausmeier, H. J. (1969). A schema for
testing the level of concept mastery (Working
Paper No. 16). Madison Wisconsin Research and
Development Center for Cognitive Learning. Fry,
E. B., Kress, J. E. (2006). The reading
teacher's book of lists (5th ed.). San
Francisco Jossey-Bass. Graves, M. F. (2006).
The vocabulary book Learning and instruction.
New York Teachers College Press, IRA, and
NCTE. Graves, M. F. (2007). Conceptual and
empirical bases for providing struggling readers
with multi-faceted and long-term vocabulary
instruction. In B. M. Taylor J. Ysseldyke
(Eds.), Educational perspectives on struggling
readers (pp. 55-83). New York Teachers College
Press.
58
References
Graves, M. F. (in press). Teaching individual
words One size does not fit all. New York
Teachers College Press and IRA. Graves, M. F.,
Watts-Taffe, S. M. (2002). The place of word
consciousness in a research-based vocabulary
program. In S. J. Samuels A. E. Farstrup
(Eds.), What research has to say about reading
instruction (3rd ed., pp. 140-165). Newark, DE
IRA. Graves, M. F., Watts-Taffe, S. M. (2007).
Word consciousness comes of age. Unpublished
paper. Hart, B., Risley, T. R. (1995).
Meaningful differences in the everyday
experiences of young American children.
Baltimore P. H. Brookes. Hart, B., Risley, T.
R. (2003, Spring). The early catastrophe The
30 million word gap by age 3. American Educator,
27 (1), 4-9. Heimlich, J. E., Pittelman, S. D.
(1986). Semantic mapping Classroom
applications. Newark, DE International Reading
Association. Hiebert, E. H. (2005). In pursuit
of an effective, efficient vocabulary curriculum
for elementary students. In E. H. Hiebert M.
L. Kamil (Eds.), Teaching and learning
vocabulary Bringing research to practice (pp.
243-263). Mahwah, NJ Erlbaum. Heimlich, J. E.,
Pittelman, S. D. (1986). Semantic mapping
Classroom applications. Newark, DE
International Reading Association. Longman Study
Dictionary of American English. (2006).
Edinburgh Gate, UK Pearson Education
Limited. Pittelman, S. D., Heimlich, J. E.,
Berglund, R. L., French, M. P. (1991).
Semantic feature analysis Classroom
applications. Newark, DE International Reading
Association. Sales, G. Graves, M. F. (2007).
The First 4,000 words. Grant funded by the U.S.
Office of Education SBIR division of IES.
Stahl, S. A., Nagy, W. E. (2006). Teaching
word meanings. Mahwah, NJ Erlbaum. White,
T.G., Slater, W.H., Graves, M.F. (1989).
Yes/No method of vocabulary assessment Valid
for whom and useful for what? S. McCormick J.
Zutell (Eds.),Cognitive and social perspectives
for literacy research and instruction (pp.
391-398). Chicago National Reading Conference.