Paragraphs and essays

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Paragraphs and essays

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Title: Paragraphs and essays

1
Paragraphs and essays

I. ways of developing paragraphs
1. Development by time
In telling a story or recounting an event, the
easiest and clearest way is to describe things in
order of time earlier things are mentioned
before later things, the first thing first and
the last thing last. This method is also called
chronological sequencing.

2
e.g. page 89

My heart gave a leap when I heard the
announcement that our train would soon arrive at
its destinationBeijing. Like other passengers, I
began to collect my things and put my mug, towel,
atlas, apples, and other things into my bag. To
the tune of a beautiful song the train pulled
into the station and gently stopped by a
platform. I walked out of the train and was
carried forward by the stream of people into an
underground passage and then into a big hall. As
I stepped out of the station, I was dazzled by
the bright autumn skies of Beijing. Though I had
been on the train for more than thirty hours and
spent a sleepless night, I didnt feel tired at
all, and I believed my days in Beijing would be
as sunny as the skies.

3
Study the following expressions often used in
describing chronological relations page 118

now nowadays
when before after while during
between _____ and _____
in _____ (year)
since _____
later earlier formerly etc.
at the turn of the century (decade) etc.
in the first half of the century, etc.
in the 1900s, etc.

at birth in childhood in infancy in
adolescence as an adult in adulthood in old
age at death
simultaneously simultaneous with at the same
time as
the former the latter
previous previously prior to
first second etc.
in the first place in the second place, etc. to
begin with next then subsequently in the next
place
next then subsequently in the next place
in conclusion finally lastly in the end

5
2. Development by process

chronological sequence and a step-by-step
description.
imperative sentences and sentences with the
indefinite pronoun you as the subject are often
used.
the present tense if applicable.

6
e.g. Page 90

Once you encounter a person who has stopped
breathing, you should begin immediately to do
mouth-to-mouth breathing. First, place the
victim on his back and remove any foreign matter
from his mouth with your fingers. Then tilt his
head backwards, so that his chin is pointing up.
Next, pull his mouth open and his jaw forward,
pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which
you blow into his mouth from escaping through his
nose. Then place your mouth tightly over the
victims. Blow into his mouth until you see his
chest rise. Then turn your head to the side and
listen for the outrush of air which indicates an
air exchange. Repeat the process

7
Study the following phrases often used in writing
process descriptions page 121

occur before at this point
become until at the same time
happen while by means of
grow as through the use of
take place once be carried out
then change into as soon as

8
Exercises

Study the following sentences and put them
together to form a paragraph. The paragraph
should give a precise description of what is
involved in the marking of examination papers in
foreign language examinations in Britain. Page121
and page 122

(1) Problem papers are marked and returned to the
chief examiner for remarking.
(2) It is not customary in Britain to be informed
of an examination result sooner than about two
months from the time the examination was taken.
(3) After the paper has been completed by the
candidate, it is collected in by the invigilator.
(4) The papers are marked initially by a single
examiner, working with clear, predetermined
marking guidelines.
(5) In order to sample the marking the chief
examiner selects a percentage of the papers from
all examiners and marks them himself, or has them
marked by a second marker.
(6) The papers are then sent by recorded delivery
to the chief examiner, who redistributes them for
marking.
(7) The invigilator bundles the papers together
and places them, counted and labelled, in an
envelope.

10
Key

1 (3) After the paper has been completed by the
candidate, it is collected in by the invigilator.
2 (7) The invigilator bundles the papers
together and places them, counted and labelled,
in an envelope.
3 (6) The papers are then sent by recorded
delivery to the chief examiner, who redistributes
them for marking.
4 (4) The papers are marked initially by a single
examiner, working with clear, predetermined
marking guidelines.
5 (1) Problem papers are marked and returned to
the chief examiner for remarking.
6 (5) In order to sample the marking the chief
examiner selects a percentage of the papers from
all examiners and marks them himself, or has them
marked by a second marker.
7 (2) It is not customary in Britain to be
informed of an examination result sooner than
about two months from the time the examination
was taken.

11
3. Development by space

the space relationships between different parts
arranging our description accordingly.

12
e.g. page 92

Mr. Cook, a renowned American historian, arranges
the books on his bookshelves in a unique way. In
the upper right hand corner, there are books
about the development of the early colonies in
New England and the War of Independence. Right
under them can be found books on the slave trade,
the plantation system and the growth of the
southern states. The left side of the shelf
contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of
the Westward Movement, Indian culture, the
cowboys contributions so American society and
the Gold Rush in California. From the description
above, one can see that Mr. Cook regards his
bookshelves as a map of the U.S. and arranges his
history books accordingly. It is odd, but it is
convenient.

This paragraph, which describes the arrangement
of books, is simple and clear. The positions of
the books are described in order that is easy to
follow first from the upper right to the lower
right, and then to the left.

14
Study the following expression for describing
spacial relationships

where
in which to which from which etc.
under over inside beside on top of etc.
along through as far as etc.
north northern south southern etc.
at the back in front in the middle etc.
adjacent parallel rectangle
corresponding parallel to semicircle
distance perpendicular to slope
midpoint plane space
interior opposite surface
diagonal overlapping vertical
edge pyramid horizontal
limit exterior intersection

15
4.Development by example or generalization

examples or illustrations
clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing.

16
e.g. Page 93

This term several useful and interesting courses
have been offered. An Introduction to European
Culture, for instance, gives us a lot of
background knowledge of the history of European
philosophy, literature, and arts. From time to
time we see slide shows of famous paintings and
hear tapes of famous pieces of music, and they
make the lectures all the more interesting.
American Society and Culture is another course
that attracts a large audience. The teacher, who
visited the United States not long ago, discusses
new trends and changes in American life as well
as American history and traditions. We like these
and other courses very much, because they help us
not only to improve our English but also to
broaden our vision.

In this paragraph there are two examples that
explain why certain courses are useful and
interesting as is said in the first sentence.

Details or example are usually arranged in
climactic order the least important comes first,
followed by others in order of increasing
importance. Such a climactic sequence is followed
in paragraphs developed not only by details or
examples but also by comparison and contrast, by
cause and effect, etc.

19
Study the following expressions for making
generalizations and giving specific details page
124

for example in substantiation
for instance to substantiate
for one thing as an illustration
to illustrate in one instance
in this instance in other words
as an example as follows
take ____ for example let me illustrate
consider ____ for example let me cite as
proof
in practice according to
statistics
according to statistical evidence always
generally all
generally speaking every
on the whole never

20
Exercises

3. On the basis of the following information,
make a generalization about a) Japanese workers
B) Beijings environment. Page128 and page 129

21
(1)

A Japanese workers like work better than
anything else.
B In 1985, Japanese workers worked an average of
2168 hours a year. By comparison, people in
Britain worked 1952 hours, in the U.S., 1924, in
West Germany, 1659 and in France, 1643.
C Many Japanese workers feel that if they take a
week off, they will lose touch with the business
and fall behind other people.
D It is considered bad form in many offices in
Japan to leave before the boss. So workers will
continue to work until their boss finally puts on
his jacket and heads out the door.
Japanese workers are very conscientious with
their work.

22
(2)

A Dust storms used to make havoc of Beijing for
an average of 20 days a year. Now the number
of such awful days stands at around 10 annually.
B The volume of falling dust and suspended
particles in the air in the capital declined 19
and 12 percent respectively over the last five
years.
C Over 70 per cent of the farmland around
Beijing now enjoys protection given by the
various forms of tree belts.
D The speed of the wind over the farmland is 30
to 40 per cent slower, humidity has risen 5 to 15
per cent, and grain output is generally 10 to 20
per cent higher.
E Grain output in the same area increased by
over one-fifth after the fields were surrounded
by trees.
F Great efforts have been made in the past ten
years to plant trees and build a forest network
around Beijing.
G Trees are planted in an area larger than the
33,000 hectares around the Miyun Reservoir.
Beijings environment is improved.

23
5. Development by comparison and contrast

the similarities between two or more persons or
things of the same class
the differences between them.

24
There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs
of comparison and contrast.

block comparison / block contrast
alternating comparison / alternating contrast

25
The following paragraph is a good example of
alternating comparison. Page97
26

The same qualities that make people good
houseguests make them good hospital patients.
Good houseguests can expect a reasonable amount
of service and effort on their behalf, and
hospital patients can also Guests have to adjust
to what is for them a change, and certainly
hospital patients must do the same. No one
appreciates a complaining, unpleasant,
unappreciative houseguests, and the hospital
staff is no exception. Houseguests who expect
vast changes to be made for their benefit are not
popular for long. Certainly nurses and other
personnel with their routines feel the same way
about patients in their care. Just as houseguests
must make adjustments to enjoy their visits, so
patients must make adjustments to make their
stays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under
the circumstances.

Alternating contrast is used when you want to
point out several differences between two things
or people without discussing them in great
detail. You merely point out a special feature of
one item and then state how the other item
differs from it in that aspect.

Block comparison / contrast is suitable when the
writer wants to treat points of similarity /
difference in depth. This type of comparison/
difference is often used when the points of
similarity /difference discussed are not many but
complex, and require much explanation.

Examples of alternating contrast and block
comparison and block contrast can be found in our
textbook, page 97, page98, and page 99.

30
Study the following expressions often used in
making comparison and contrast page 130 and 131

To compare
similar to at the same rate as
similarly as
like, alike just as
likewise in like manner
correspond to in the same way
correspondingly to have _____ in common
resemble common characteristics,
etc.
resemblance to be parallel in _____
almost the same as both

31
To contrast

differ from unlike
however in contrast to
otherwise in opposition to
still on the contrary
nevertheless on the opposite side
even so on the other hand
a larger (smaller) percentage than
but less than
different from although
more than faster than, etc.
while

32
Exercises

2. Read the following sentences and indicate if
they are sentences of comparison or contrast.
Page 131
(1) Though both are forms of humor, comedy is
different from satire. (contrast)
(2) In 2000 the world will surely be different
from what it is today. (contrast)
(3) Fashions in furniture change just as clothing
fashions do. (comparison)
(4) Buying a car requires as much skill as
selling one. (comparison)
(5) Badminton is as important a sport in
Indonesia as football in the United States.
(comparison)
(6) There is more hard work in writing than in
physical labor. (contrast)
(7) Ballet is a more exhausting art than
gymnastics. (contrast)
(8) Friendship, like love, is often discussed
but seldom understood (comparison)

33
3. Write statements of contrast to fit the
following patterns (you may need a word or a
phrase to complete the sentence). Page 132

(1) TV and newspapers are different in many ways
even though their aims may be the same.
(2) Sound travels faster through metal than
through water/air.
(3) Before 1880 many people died of smallpox
however, the percentage of deaths from smallpox
is small today.
(4) Some children grow taller /bigger than other
children because of nutritional differences.
(5) In contrast to living on the farm, living in
the city is an intense struggle to survive in a
concrete wasteland.
(6) Per capita earnings in Japan different from
those in South Korea.

34
4. Write statements of comparison to fit the
following patterns (you may need a word or a
phrase to complete the sentence).

(1) The development of transportation and the
development of communications are parallel in
many ways.
(2) Anshan in the Northease of China and
Panzhihua in the Southwest are both steel
centers.
(3) Despite centuries of change, human beings and
their primitive ancestors have many traits in
common.
(4) Neither badminton nor table tennis requires a
large playing area.
(5) Although the last days of the Roman Empire
may at first appear very different from those of
the United States today, there are ominous
resemblances/similarities.

35
6. Development by cause and effect
36

Sound reasoning or logic is naturally the most
important quality of any causal analysis. But it
is not always easy to explain causes and effects
clearly and logically. One reason for this is
that an effect may have many causes and a cause
may have many effects. So we must be thorough in
our discussion and careful in our selection of
details.

37
Two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed
by cause and effect.

The first method is to state an effect and devote
the rest of the paragraph to examining the
causes.

38
Lets look at the example in the book, page 102.

One might wonder why, after the Norman Conquest,
French did not become the national language,
replacing English entirely. The reason is that
the Conquest was not a national migration, as the
earlier Anglo-Saxon invasion had been. Great
numbers of Normans came to England, but they came
as rulers and landlords. French became the
language of the court, the language of the
nobility, the language of polite society, the
language of literature. But it did not replace
English as the language of the people. There must
always have been hundreds of towns and villages
in which French was never heard except when
visitors of high station passed through.Paul
Roverts

In this paragraph, the opening sentence raises
the question of why the Norman Conquest did not,
as might have been expected, make England a
French-speaking country. This sentence states an
effect or result of the Conquest. The sentences
that follow develop the controlling idea by
explaining the causes.

The second method is to state a cause and then
mention or predict the effects.
Suppose the topic sentence is More and more
fertile land in China is taken up by new
buildings. In the rest of the paragraph the
effects of this development should be mentioned,
such as the reduction of the grain output,
increasing environmental problems, too many
peasants moving into the cities, etc.

41
Lets look at the example in the book, page 103.

One might wonder why, after the Norman Conquest,
French did not become the national language,
replacing English entirely. The reason is that
the Conquest was not a national migration, as the
earlier Anglo-Saxon invasion had been. Great
numbers of Normans came to England, but they came
as rulers and landlords. French became the
language of the court, the language of the
nobility, the language of polite society, the
language of literature. But it did not replace
English as the language of the people. There must
always have been hundreds of towns and villages
in which French was never heard except when
visitors of high station passed through.Paul
Roverts

In next paragraph, the topic sentence states a
cause, and then the writer predicts what effects
the surge of demand for oil will bring to
American society.

43
Study the following expressions for discussing
cause and effect Page 134 and page 135

so consequently thus
therefore accordingly because
of
for this reason owing to for
this reason
as a result since hence
due to because
as a result of as the
effect of
the result of so that thanks
to
result in so ____ that the
consequence of
out of have an effect on owe ____
to
the reason for the cause of It
follows that
now that seeing that for fear
that
such _____ that so as ____ to make __
possible
make it possible /impossible for ____ to ____

44
Exercises

2. Decide whether the following sentences express
Cause and Effect or things that happened in
chronological order. Page 135
(1) Peter and Mark went to the park yesterday.
They had barbecue there. (Chronological order)
(2) Footsteps echoed down the empty path towards
Mary, and she was afraid. (Cause and Effect)
(3) John has a Vitamin C deficiency. He has a
skin disease.(Cause and Effect)
(4) Bob was very sleepy. He sat nodding in his
car. (Cause and Effect)
(5) There are a loud knock at the door
downstairs. The knock woke me out of a sound
sleep. (Cause and Effect)
(6) Susan did not feel well. She did not turn up.
(Cause and Effect)

45
3. Study the following information. In the blank
before each sentence, write C if it is a
statement of Cause or E if it is a statement of
Effect. Page 136
46
(1) Topic Music in the United States

E A Popular music showed a definite change in the
1950sa movement away from the big band sound
that had appealed to those growing up in the
1920s, 1930s, and 1940s.
C B Teenagers became more affluent and thus had
the money to buy records by performers like Elvis
Presley and Ray Charles.
C C The black population finally had the money in
the 1950s to support the singers and musicians
they had preferred for years.
C D A large proportion of the adult white
population that had been poor during the
depression began to rebel against the
sophisticated lyrics and sounds of the big band
musicians.
C E The new afflence of groups of people who had
previously had little money to spend on
entertainment paved the way for the emergence of
gospel, blues, and rock music.

47
(2) Topic Tornados

C A Tornados are formed when warm, moist air
spreads northward, meeting with cold air flowing
from the north and west above it.
E B The meeting of cold and warm air starts the
characteristic circular motion.
E C The circular motion quickly builds up and
becomes forceful enough to tear buildings apart
and uproot trees.
E D Not only are tornados able to move huge
objects but they also occasionally do odd things,
such as stripping a chicken of its feathers
quickly.

48
(3) Drunk drivers

C A Excessive amounts of alcohol cause one to
lose ones sense of responsibility.
E B Excessive amounts of alcohol slow reaction
time and seriously impair depth perception.
E C The inebriated driver is unable to make quick
logical decisions and is often responsible for
accidents causing serious injuries or death.
E D Drunk drivers are dangerous.
E E Drunk driver pose a serious threat to
themselves as well as to others.

49
7. Development by classification

Sort things into categories according to their
characteristics.
We classify many things trees, rivers, cities,
companies, college students.
We group things according to their similarities
and differences. If we classify rivers, we
separate them into wide ones, narrow ones, long
ones, short ones, deep ones, and shallow ones.
Apples may be classified according to size, place
of origin, color, price, or quality.

50
Parallelism

If we classify types of sports, we may speak of
track and field events, swimming, ball games,
gymnastics, etc.
If we classified sports into jumping, ball games,
running, floor exercise and backstroke, we would
violate parallelism, for ball games should be
considered a general category, while jumping and
running are subcategories of the track and field
events gymnastics is a general category, and
floor exercise a particular form of it.
In short, in a good classification the parts must
be paralleled, and they should add up to the
whole subject.

51
In the following paragraph, the author divides
book owners into three main types and then
describes each of them. Page 104

There are three kinds of book owners. The first
has all the standard sets and best
sellers--unread, untouched. (This deluded
individual owns woodpulp and ink, not books.) The
second has a great many books--a few of them read
through, most of them dipped into, but all of
them as clean and shiny as the day they were
bought. (This person would probably like to make
books his own, but is restrained by a false
respect for their physical appearance.) The third
has a few books or many --every one of them
dog-eard and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by
continual use, marked and scribbled in from front
to back. (This man owns books.) --Mortimer
J. Addler

52
Study the following expressions for
classification

main kinds of unimportant
major kinds of insignificant
basic kinds similar
fundamental dissimilar
significant contradictory
important opposing
primary, secondary opposite
minor contrasting

clearly distinguishable
easily distinguished
incontestable differences
incontestable similarities
classify
divide

kinds types attributes
methods sources characteristics
parts regions factors
divisions origins eras
categories bases time
classes qualities aspects

classifications
mutually exclusive
according to ______
with respect to ______
_________ falls into _____ categories
______ can be divided into _____ classes

56
Exercises

3. in the blank before each of the following
sentences, write G if it is a statement of
GENERALIZATION or C if it is a statement of
CLASSIFICATION. Page 139

G (1) Democracy is a state of mind.
G (2) Some sports require as high a degree of
eye-mind-hand coordination as brain surgery.
C (3) Gamblers fall into several classes,
depending upon what their stakes are.
G (4) Students should not be allowed to smoke in
the classroom.
C (5) Many aspects of the American character can
be attributed to the American frontier.
C (6) United States history as reflected by the
concentration of people in cities can be divided
two clearly distinguishable periods.
G (7) A number of foreign countries were
directly involved in U.S. territorial expansion.
G (8) A wild stallion is powerful and fierce.
C (9) Everyone has three kinds of "friends" he
wants to forget.

58
8. Development by definition

three basic ways to define a word or term
to give a synonym, e.g. "To mend means to
repair." "A fellow is a man or a boy."
to use a sentence (often with an attributive
clause),e.g. "Ink is colored water which we use
for writing."
to write a paragraph or even an essay.

59
When we give a definition, we should observe
certain principles.

First, we should avoid circular definitions.
"Democracy is the democratic process" and "An
astronomer is one who studies astronomy" are
circular definitions. When words are defined in
terms of themselves, no one's understanding is
improved.

Second, we should avoid long lists of synonyms if
the term to be defined is an abstract one.
"By imagination, I mean the power to form mental
images of objects, the power to form new ideas,
the gift of employing images in writing, and the
tendency to attribute reality to unreal things,
situations and states."

Third, we should avoid loaded definitions.
Loaded definitions do not explain terms but make
an immediate appeal for emotional approval.
"By state enterprise I mean high cost and poor
efficiency."
"By state enterprise I mean one of the great
blessings of democratic planning."

62
The following paragraphs are good examples of
clear and objective definition. Page 106

A "liberated woman" is simply a woman who
controls her own life, rather than allowing it to
be controlled by other people, traditions, or
expectations. A "liberated woman" can be found
pursuing any line of work, including housework,
or no work at all. She may or may not be married
she may or may not have borne children. She may
belong to any race she may have attained any
age. She may be poor or wealthy, educated or
illiterate. She need have only one trait in
common with her "liberated sisters" she makes
her own choices, whether they be the colors on
her walls or the advanced degrees she seeks. She
acts of her own volition, responsible to herself,
and not out of fear of what her mother, lover, or
neighbor might say.
--Klarner W. Harp

63
Study the following definitions. Decide which are
good ones and which are inadequate. Page 142

to define to explain
in definition in explanation
in other words by ____ is meant
to clarify to paraphrase
in clarification
form aspect
species characteristic
class method
device property
type condition
kind attribute
category

64
9. Development by a combination of methods

a combination of methods in order to present
their ideas in an impressive and convincing
manner.

65
e.g Page 108

Kin-tay often told Kizzy stories about himself.
He said that he had been near his village in
Africa, chopping wood to make a drum, when he had
been set upon by four men, overwhelmed, and
kidnapped into slavery. When Kizzy grew up and
became a mother, she told her son these stores,
and he in turn would tell his children. His
granddaughter became my grandmother, and she
pumped that saga into me as if it were plasma,
until I knew by rote the story of the African,
and the subsequent generational wending of our
family through cotton and tobacco plantations
into the Civil War and then freedom.
--Alex Haley

Two methods are clearly seen in this paragraph
development by time and development by cause and
effect.

67
Exercises

Computer programming offers many interesting job
opportunities.(examples)

68
Performing a winter checkup on your car can be
done easily if you follow the proper
procedure.(step by step)
69
Canadian and American football, although similar
in many ways, have some important differences.
(comparison and contrast)
70
The meaning of pedagogy may differ, depending
upon the lever of education one is talking about.
(definition)
71
Pasta can compliment many different kinds of
meals. (classification)
72
Jane had an interesting experience when she
visited France last fall. (time)
73
There were many factors that contributed to the
outbreak of World War II. (cause and effect)

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