Ten to Twelve Months

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Ten to Twelve Months

• Fogel
• Chapter 8

Created by Ilse DeKoeyer-Laros, Ph.D.
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Ten to Twelve Months

• Physical and Motor Development
• Perceptual Development
• Cognitive Development
• Emotional Development
• Social and Language Development
• Family and Society

• Experiential Exercises

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Ten to Twelve Months

• From 10 to 12 months brings several of the most
  important achievements of the infancy period
• infants develop strong and permanent attachments
  to their primary caregivers, typically the
  members of the immediate family
• they prefer to stay close to these people, they
  do not like separations, and they may become
  afraid of strangers under certain circumstances
• the infants sense of security or insecurity in
  those attachment ties has lasting implications
  for mental health and the success of
  interpersonal relationships
• Infants develop a subjective sense of self
• they learn ways to communicate their perceptions
  and feelings to others and at the same time learn
  that others have a view of the world different
  from their own

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Physical Motor Development

• By the age of 1 year, infant growth rates have
  leveled off
• most year-old boys are between 28 1/4 inches
  (71.75 cm) and 32 inches (81.25 cm) in length
• girls are between 27 1/2 inches (69.85 cm) and 31
  1/4 inches (79.38 cm)
• both boys and girls will continue to grow at a
  rate of about 4 to 5 inches (10 to 13 cm) per
  year for the next several years
• At 1 year, boys weigh between 18 1/2 and 26 1/2
  pounds (8.4 to 12.0 kg)
• girls weigh between 17 1/4 and 24 3/4 pounds
  (7.8 to 11.2 kg)
• By the 12th month, most babies are eating a
  variety of solid foods, including table foods
  that are cut up for them
• most infants are holding their own spoons and can
  drink from a cup with both hands
• by this time, almost all infants will have
  experienced teething pains and will have several
  teeth to help them chew their food

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Physical Motor Development

• 11 months is the average age at which infants can
  stand alone (the range is 9 to 16 months)
• At 11 3/4 months, the average baby can walk alone
  (the range is 9 to 17 months)
• By 1 year, most infants can sit down from a
  standing position, and most can climb up and down
  stairs by crawling

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Physical Motor Development

• Infants between 3 and 15 months were observed
  every 3 weeks in a laboratory going up and down a
  moderate slope
• The methods used to go up and down depended upon
  whether the infant was a belly crawler (also
  called a creeper see Chapter 7), a
  hands-and-knees crawler, or a walker
• Most of the infants adapted their locomotion by
  checking out the slope in relation to their
  abilities
• The more experience they had with the slope, the
  more conservative they became in their method and
  the less need there was to rescue the infant from
  a possible fall
• With experience, infants began to make smart
  locomotor decisions that required less adult
  guidance, and parents reported a similar
  progression at home

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Physical Motor Development

• Infants used four different strategies, depending
  upon their ability
• there was the quick glance followed by a plunge,
  typically when infants felt the surface was safe
  enough to proceed
• if the glance suggested some difficulty, the
  infants took a long look while swaying their
  bodies, then proceeded with their typical method
  of locomotion
• if that did not work, infants took more time to
  look, and they also touched the slope to check
  the slant
• this was sometimes followed by their typical
  means of locomotion and sometimes by an
  alternative means
• if these techniques did not work, as a last
  resort, infants would hold onto the landing and
  try out different means of locomotion before
  proceeding
• at this point, if they perceived the slope as too
  risky they would await a rescue from the adult
• if not, they typically chose a sliding method

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Physical Motor Development

• The first months of independent walking initiate
  what some refer to as the toddler period of
  infant development
• the label toddler seems to derive from the
  characteristic gait of the child who has not
  fully mastered the skill of walking
• the earliest forms of childhood bipedalism have a
  distinct resemblance to a duck out for a jog
• When adults walk, both legs are moving at the
  same time while one is moving forward, the other
  moves backward relative to the body
• This kind of movement is called symmetrical gait
• In the gait of toddlers, many steps are
  symmetrical, but many are also unsymmetrical
• this happens because the toddlers often plant one
  foot and then seem to fall forward onto the other
  foot in a robot-like walk
• toddlers still have trouble balancing and they
  need to walk this way to keep from falling

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Physical Motor Development

• Smoothness of gait reaches nearly adult levels
  about 6 months after the infant begins walking,
  regardless of the age at which the infant started
  taking steps
• If infants are given support by an adult, their
  variability lessens, and they seem to be
  better-coordinated walkers
• this suggests that balance, not the timing of the
  limb movements, is the limiting factor
• balance improves gradually over time with
  increases in muscle strength and experience
  walking
• Locomotion has benefits other than the ability to
  move from place to place
• after beginning to walk, 10-month-old infants
  increase their frequency and duration of social
  contacts
• this occurs whether the walking is supported or
  unsupported
• it appears that an upright infant is more likely
  to be able to look, vocalize, and smile at adults

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Physical Motor Development

• Locomotor experience enhances cognitive
  development
• one of the tests typically used to assess
  cognitive knowledge is the ability to search for
  hidden objects
• infants with more locomotor experience, who are
  apparently more accustomed to moving around in
  the environment, are the most likely to persist
  in searches for hidden objects
• The development of walking also facilitates the
  search for hidden objects by blind infants, even
  though blind infants walk later than sighted
  infants
• Being able to move oneself through the
  environment is essential for understanding
  spatial arrangements and the locations of things
  in that space

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Physical Motor Development

• The motor skill of reaching continues to improve
  during this period
• between 6 and 8 months, infants discover that
  they can lean forward to get objects just outside
  their reach
• by 10 months, infants understand the limits of
  how far they can reach both by leaning forward
  and by extending their arms
• by 12 months, infants are able to use mechanical
  and social aids to get things out of their reach,
  such as using a long object to get another or
  asking an adult for help

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Physical Motor Development

• Fine motor development is linked to cognitive and
  perceptual development
• In one research study, infants at 6, 9, and 12
  months were observed while playing with objects
  that differed in weight, shape, or texture
• infants were handed one object to explore and
  then given another differing only in one property
  
• between 6 and 12 months, mouthing the objects
  decreased, while fingering increased.
• the 12-month-olds also used more actions that
  were specific to the properties of the object
• Related research has shown that by 12 months,
  infants use touching, listening, watching, and
  mouthing as alternative sources of information
  gathering
• This involves more than intersensory
  coordination it is the coordination of different
  types of motor skills in the service of directed
  exploration of objects

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Physical Motor Development

• This research shows that by 12 months, infants
  are using specific actions that are adapted to
  the type of object they are holding
• Motor skill improvements and improvements in the
  ability to relate information cross-modally (such
  as between vision and touch) are essential in
  fostering cognitive development because they put
  infants into direct contact with more aspects of
  their world

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Conceptualizing Relationships between Objects
Events

• By the age of 7 months, infants are just
  beginning to understand that objects exist as
  whole entities and they are starting to
  categorize objects on the basis of their
  similarity to a prototype
• By 10 months, infants are beginning to discover
  the relationships between objects, between people
  and objects, and between people
• This can be seen in the development of relational
  play
• relational play is action that demonstrates a
  knowledge of the relationships between two
  objects, for example, putting lids on pots, cups
  on saucers, or spoons in cups
• the more perceptually distinct the two objects,
  the more likely it is that babies will combine
  them correctly

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Conceptualizing Relationships between Objects
Events

• Infants of this age are also able to perceive the
  relationship between a tool and its use
• Infants first saw a toy sitting on the far end of
  a long piece of cloth
• The near end of the cloth was pulled by an
  experimenter, moving the toy closer to the
  experimenter
• Next they saw the toy sitting next to the cloth
• In one instance the cloth was pulled and the toy
  did not move closer (as expected) and in another
  instance the cloth was pulled and the toy moved
  closer (an impossible event)
• The infants were surprised when seeing the
  impossible event, suggesting that they understood
  the relationship between the cloth tool and the
  object being retrieved

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Conceptualizing Relationships between Objects
Events

• In another variant of this procedure, infants
  watched one puppet (the giver) give a flower to
  another puppet (the receiver)
• when the two puppets positions were reversed,
  the infants still expected the original giver
  puppet to continue being the giver regardless of
  physical location
• Forming relationships between objects can also be
  seen in studies in which infants were placed in
  front of a tray containing different groups of
  identical objects
• for example, four identical human figures, four
  balls of the same color, and four identical toy
  cars
• six-month-olds pick up the objects in random
  sequence, even though they can visually
  distinguish the different types of objects in a
  standard habituation procedure
• by 12 months, infants will pick up three or four
  identical objects in a row before going on to
  pick up other objects

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Conceptualizing Relationships between Objects
Events

• By 10 months, infants are able to classify
  pictures of animals (dogs versus cats), male
  versus female faces, and plants versus kitchen
  utensils
• the ability of infants of this age to categorize
  objects is related to their familiarity with
  those objects rather than to some abstract
  ability to categorize objects
• Infants of this age are also able to perceive the
  relationship between a prior event and a
  subsequent event, that is, between a cause and an
  effect
• infants can understand that when one toy car hits
  another toy car, the second one should move as a
  result of the collision
• they also understand the relationships between
  faces and voices, that a male voice belongs with
  a male face and a female voice belongs with a
  female face

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
The Emergence of Infant Intentional Action

• In these studies, infants are acting as if their
  object play has particular goals, such as
  combining objects in a meaningful way
• This deliberate combination of different actions
  into a unified pattern of behavior suggests that
  infants are intending to act in this way
• This is different from what occurred in earlier
  periods, when infants first discovered actions by
  chance and then repeated those actions as primary
  or secondary circular reactions
• This intentional and deliberate form of action is
  what Piaget called the coordination of secondary
  circular reactions
• In Observations 8.1 and 8.2, Jacquelines pushing
  away of her parents hand shows how the infant
  can combine different actions with each hand to
  achieve a goal

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
The Emergence of Infant Intentional Action

• Notice that to perform these deliberate actions,
  the infant must relate two simpler secondary
  circular reactions, such as holding the toy in
  one hand and pushing the adult away with the
  other
• Infants are also relating two actions when they
  search for hidden objects
• in order to find an object that they see being
  hidden behind a barrier or a cover, infants have
  to move the barrier with one hand and grasp the
  uncovered object with the other hand
• Piaget found that by 10 months, infants will
  readily search for the hidden object and seem
  delighted to find it under the cover

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
The Emergence of Infant Intentional Action

• Now suppose you have two identical
  handkerchief-sized pieces of colored cloth on a
  table at which you are sitting opposite the
  infant
• You engage the infant with an attractive toy,
  such as a set of colored keys, and then you hide
  the keys under one of the pieces of cloth
• Infants 10 months and older, but not younger,
  will lift the cloth to retrieve the keys
• Now suppose you take the keys back from the baby
  and hide them under the other piece of cloth
• Infants younger than about 15 months typically
  will look under the first piece of cloth and will
  not persist in looking under the second piece of
  cloth to find the object even though it was
  hidden in their plain view

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
The Emergence of Infant Intentional Action

• This mistaken search for the missing object is
  called the A-not-B error by infancy researchers
• the infants who find the object at location A,
  the first location, cannot find the object at
  location B, the second location
• it seems as if infants lose the intention to find
  the object after more than one hiding
• According to Piaget, the infants act as if part
  of their definition of the object includes its
  location
• infants do not yet conceive of a whole
  independent object
• infants define the object as the
  keys-under-the-cloth, or the ball-under-the-cha
  ir

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
The Emergence of Infant Intentional Action

• Following Piagets elegant first experiments and
  his contextual explanation, there have been a
  number of seemingly contradictory results
• first of all, it should be noted that by 9
  months, infants are almost 100 correct in
  reaching for hidden objects at the A location
• second, if objects are displaced at several
  different locations without being hidden or if
  objects are hidden under transparent covers, so
  long as the infants are first familiarized with
  the covers and objects, they are almost 100
  correct in reaching for the object in either
  location, A or B
• the only case in which this is not true is if the
  object or the infant is moved along complex paths
  with many twists and turns
• this suggests that following the path of a moving
  object in space is not limiting the infants
  search when the objects are hidden

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
The Emergence of Infant Intentional Action

• It appears, then, that infants of this age
  already have a concept of objects as existing
  when out of sight, and they do not appear to
  associate objects with particular locations,
  since they will directly search for the object in
  multiple locations so long as they can see the
  object

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
The Emergence of Infant Intentional Action

• The A-not-B error is made most frequently when
  the object is out of sight, but even then,
  infants succeed under certain conditions
• 1. If there is no delay between the hiding and
  the opportunity to search for the object, they
  can find it
• Errors are increased if infants are restrained
  for at least 3 seconds after the object is hidden
  at location B
• 2. If the infants are shown the object being
  hidden in the A location multiple times, they are
  more likely to search in the B location
• 3. If the infants are allowed to lean their
  bodies in the direction of the hidden object,
  they can sometimes find it even after a delay by
  following the direction of their lean
• 4. If the objects are hidden under covers that
  are perceptually very different, it is easier for
  the infants than if the objects are hidden under
  identical covers
• 5. It also helps if the infants are familiar with
  the objects or if the objects are interesting to
  them

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
The Emergence of Infant Intentional Action

• The A-not-B error is not a serious deficit for
  infants, and they overcome it within a few months
  or if the objects are presented in ways that
  facilitate their search
• The importance of the A-not-B error lies in
  questions it raises for understanding human
  development
• Development offers many examples in which the
  emergence of a new skill (like searching for
  hidden objects) is accompanied by a curious but
  not serious deficit (like being unable to search
  in more than one hiding place)

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Imitation

• Imitation is a skill that requires making a
  conceptual relationship between two actions, in
  this case, between another persons actions and
  ones own
• the imitations of newborns occur only for acts
  that they can already do
• observing an adult doing the same types of acts
  increases the probability of the newborns
  selecting a similar act
• newborn imitation is slow and does not happen for
  all infants
• six-month-olds can imitate actions that they have
  not done before, but only if you give them many
  demonstrations and allow them plenty of time to
  process the information
• between 10 and 12 months, infants become more
  proficient at imitating actions that they see for
  the first time or have not done before

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Imitation

• Babies are better at imitating actions that are
  close to what they can already do
• nine-month-old infants can imitate simple actions
  on objects such as opening a box, shaking a toy
  rattle, and pushing a button
• in addition, when the same babies were shown the
  objects 24 hours later, they reproduced the
  actions that had been modeled previously
• Imitation that occurs following a delay from the
  time the action is observed is called deferred
  imitation
• deferred imitation also shows that infants can
  remember the relationships they learn, at least
  for a short time
• if infants are allowed to imitate the action
  immediately, they can remember and imitate after
  longer delays compared to infants who were only
  allowed to watch and not imitate the action

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Individual Differences in Cognition Attention

• The basic trends in cognitive development have
  been found to occur at about the same ages in
  different cultures around the world
• within any group there are individual differences
  in the age of attainment of cognitive milestones
  and in the quality of cognitive abilities
• One important component of cognition is the
  ability to attend to objects for a long enough
  time to remember their locations, watch their
  paths of movement, or learn about their
  properties during exploratory play
• individual differences in the duration of
  sustained attention to objects have been found at
  the age of 1 year
• infants who can sustain attention for longer
  periods engage in higher levels of exploratory
  play and score higher on developmental tests of
  mental and motor abilities

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Individual Differences in Cognition Attention

• What factors account for individual differences
  in attention
• to some extent, these differences may be related
  to differential development of the brain and may
  be partly constitutional
• on the other hand, differences in the caregiving
  environment have been shown to influence the
  quality of infant attention
• When mothers are trained to enhance their
  object-related behaviors during social play with
  infantsby demonstrating object properties,
  pointing to and naming objects, and
  questioningthe complexity of the infants
  exploratory play is enhanced
• this effect works best for infants who have short
  attention spans
• their duration of attention increases following
  an intervention in which adults work to point out
  object properties and refocus the infants after a
  loss of attention, while the duration of
  attention for high-attending infants does not
  change following the intervention

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Individual Differences in Cognition Attention

• Another approach to the study of individual
  differences in cognitive ability is to assess the
  infants mastery motivation
• mastery motivation is an inherent motivation to
  be competent in a particular situation, and its
  measurement involves persistence in solving
  problems
• At 12 months of age, persistent goal-directed
  actions on objects are typically followed by the
  expression of smiling or laughter by infants,
  suggesting that persistence is in fact motivated
  by a goal and that the achievement of the goal
  results in positive feelings of efficacy

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Individual Differences in Cognition Attention

• Adult object-related behavior increased the level
  of mastery motivation only for 12-month-olds who
  were rated as being temperamentally low in
  activity
• For infants who were highly active, parental
  intervention had no effect or an interfering
  effect on the infants mastery
• More active infants are less in need of adult
  encouragement and intervention in their play than
  less active infant

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Individual Differences in Cognition Attention

• These studies suggest that adults can play
  important roles in the cognitive development of
  infants, particularly if their actions are
  designed to enhance the infants attention to
  objects and their properties
• the adults need not so much teach or reinforce as
  support the infants own initiatives and help the
  infants to regulate their limited attention spans
  
• a similar pattern of parental support also
  enhances word and language learning

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Individual Differences in Cognition Attention

• These results also suggest that adult behavior
  needs to be adapted to the individual infant
• babies who are less active and poor attenders may
  need a more involved adult to help organize their
  play
• babies who are more active and attentive may have
  different needs for adults, perhaps needing them
  to be an appreciative audience to whom the
  infants can show off their self-directed
  achievements

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Perceptual Cognitive Development
Individual Differences in Cognition Attention

• Infants of this age are making the discovery that
  objects and events are related to each other
• they can combine objects according to their
  function (lids on pots), their category (trucks
  vs. cars), or how they need to be combined to
  achieve a goal (using a fork to get food)
• This ability to form mental relationships between
  things is related to important developments in
  emotion, communication, and the sense of self

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Emotional Development

• The infants life is becoming increasingly
  integrated into patterns of intentions and
  relationships
• Motor skills create the tools with which the
  infant can operate on the environment to achieve
  goals, and goals increasingly structure the way
  in which the infant behaves
• During the previous age period, infants became
  upset when someone caused them pain or when some
  expected event did not happen
• between the ages of 10 and 12 months, infants
  become upset when their goals are blocked and are
  pleased when they achieve an intended goal
• they also develop new emotions regarding their
  relationships with other people

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Emotional Development
The Development of Anger

• Anger is the emotion most frequently elicited in
  infants when their goals have been disrupted
• An angry expression has distinct characteristics
• the mouth is open with a squarish shape that is
  angled downward toward the back of the mouth
• the brows are lowered, and the eyes are opened
  and intense
• anger typically involves a bracing of the jaw
• In the expression of distress, the mouth is
  similar, but the eyes are usually closed or
  partially closed

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Emotional Development
The Development of Anger

• When the infant is crying and making the anger
  expression at the same time, the state of emotion
  is more intense
• When anger expressions were observed without
  crying, EEG recordings from the infants scalps
  showed heightened activity in the left frontal
  region
• when the infants were angry and crying, there was
  more activity in the right frontal region
• the right frontal area is believed to be
  associated with more-intense states of negative
  emotions
• these results suggest that low levels of anger,
  without crying, are probably more
  cognitively-based (left brain) and maintain the
  infants orientation toward the environment

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Emotional Development
The Development of Anger

• The emotion of anger began in the previous stage
  as a more vigilant and intense form of distress
• Between 10 and 12 months, anger becomes more
  purposeful and directed
• infants do such things as stomp their feet, hit
  away objects or interfering hands, or slap and
  kick
• these expressions have the quality of outbursts,
  and they coincide with the development of
  goal-directed behavior seen in other realms of
  infant functioning during this period

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Emotional Development
The Development of Wariness Fear

• Around the age of 6 months, infants develop a
  wary look, which may involve a raised brow
  furrowing above the nose and a relatively relaxed
  mouth
• Wariness is related to the emotion of fear, since
  both involve an inhibition of action and may
  reflect a tendency for the individual to withdraw
  from the situation

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Emotional Development
The Development of Wariness Fear

• The expression of fear includes the raised and
  furrowed brow of wariness while the mouth corners
  are retracted straight back
• true fear expressions are rare in infancy, but
  they first appear around the age of 10 months
• fear expressions may appear briefly and then
  change to anger or sadness
• fear is more likely to be expressed by behavioral
  inhibition in the absence of a facial expression
• infants may stop their movements or actively
  avoid approaching the source of the fear. Infants
  feel fear when unexpected or threatening events
  occur

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Emotional Development
The Development of Wariness Fear

• Situations that may arouse fear in year-old
  infants
• Heights
• fear of heights has been assessed using the
  visual cliff situation
• a piece of hard, clear plastic is extended over a
  box with a shallow side and a deep side
• beginning at 9 months of age, infants show fear
  in approaching the deep side of the cliff
• Unpredictable objects and movements
• infants will show fear responses to any
  objectseither people or inanimate moving
  objectsthat loom unexpectedly in front of them
• surprising events, like a jack-in-the-box popping
  up, may also cause fear
• unpredictable, noisy mechanical toys can cause
  fear
• however, in one study, infants were given control
  over the movements of such toys.
• when the infants were in control, the toys were
  significantly less fearsome

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Emotional Development
The Development of Wariness Fear

• Acquired fears
• infants may become fearful of an otherwise benign
  situation because it reminds them of something
  they found stressful, fearful, or painful in the
  past
• these fears can be said to arise from a
  conditioned association
• they are different from fears of such things as
  heights or looming objects, which may be
  universal
• acquired fears are learned
• examples are fear of particular people, of
  doctors offices, or of certain kinds of sounds,
  such as a dogs bark

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Emotional Development
The Development of Wariness Fear

• Strangers
• Fear of strangers takes two forms
• one is an acquired fear of particular people or
  people wearing a particular kind of clothing or
  hairstyle
• the other is a general wariness of the unfamiliar
  that appears in most infants in every culture
  beginning about 8 months of age
• Infants show less fear
• if the stranger approaches them slowly and keeps
  an appropriate distance
• if their mothers are present when the stranger
  approaches
• if they are with familiar caregivers, such as
  baby-sitters or child-care providers
• if the stranger is a little person or a child
• if the stranger does not tower over them
• if the stranger is sensitive to the infants
  signals and allows the approach to be regulated
  by the infants
• if the infants are in an unfamiliar setting, such
  as a laboratory, compared to a home

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Emotional Development
The Development of Wariness Fear

• You might expect a baby to be less fearful at
  home than in a strange place, but this is not the
  case
• when the stranger intrudes on the familiar and
  predictable setting of the home the infant gets
  disturbed
• In strange places, infants seem to expect to see
  unusual or unfamiliar things
• A number of studies have shown that babies can
  engage in positive and rewarding social
  interaction soon after meeting a new person
• if the stranger proves acceptable to the baby,
  the baby often will spend more time playing with
  this interesting visitor than with his or her own
  mother

45
Emotional Development
The Development of Sadness

• The emotion of sadness has a different expression
  than anger and fear
• during sadness, the brows are raised at the
  center and drop at the sides, and the mouth
  corners are drawn back and down
• Sadness without crying is less intense, showing
  left-frontal brain activity
• with crying, sadness is accompanied by
  right-brain activation
• in the earlier months, sadness accompanies
  disappointment when an expected event fails to
  happen
• By 9 or 10 months, sadness accompanies a feeling
  of loss
• because infants can now connect their memory of
  absent objects with some concrete action on the
  objects, the infants may become sad if an object
  disappears and they cannot find it after a search

46
Emotional Development
The Development of Sadness

• In some cases, but not all, sadness accompanies
  separation from caregivers
• this emotion is sometimes called separation
  distress
• Research has shown that if mothers leave their
  babies behind in the company of the regular
  caregiver (the grandmother, baby-sitter, father),
  there is little or no separation distress
• Infants respond more positively to separation
  from their mothers
• if they are left with any other person,
  particularly a familiar one
• if they are left with toys of any kind
• if they can see or hear their mothers in an
  adjoining room
• if they are left with their own pacifiers

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Emotional Development
The Development of Sadness

• The mothers' saying bye-bye or making some
  other parting gestures before they left had no
  effect on 1-year-olds
• these parting gestures do seem to help older
  infants
• the longer parents take to say good-bye, the
  harder it is for the babies to initially adjust
  to the new situation

48
Emotional Development
The Development of Sadness

• There are cultural differences in infant response
  to separation, as shown by a study of brief
  (30-second) mother-infant separations in Japan
• about half of the Japanese infants showed
  distress, even at this brief separation, perhaps
  because of the close contact between Japanese
  mothers and their infants and because separation
  is relatively rare
• about one-third of the mothers apologized to the
  infant during the reunion
• their apologies were done in an intonation
  pattern that matched the infants crying, such as
  saying Hai, hai, gomen nei, gomen nei, oh, oh
  (yes, yes, oh, Im so sorry, so sorry, well,
  well)
• the mothers seemed to endorse the infants
  feelings as if to join in their misery and seek
  their forgiveness, a pattern of emotional sharing
  commonly seen in Japanese adults

49
Emotional Development
The Development of Sadness

• If infants are separated from parents for long
  periods and are not provided with adequate
  substitute caregivers, more serious depression
  and withdrawal can result, including both
  behavior and physiological changes
• These effects can be ameliorated to some extent
  once the infants are restored to stable adult
  care, either with their biological parents or
  with adoptive parents

50
Emotional Development
The Development of Enjoyment Affection

• In the earlier months, infants showed positive
  responses to their caregivers
• The smile of recognition appears at 2 months, and
  laughter of enjoyment during social play appears
  at 5 months
• At 10 months, the infant has a deeper and more
  lasting type of positive feeling that has been
  called affection
• Affection has a characteristic expression that is
  similar to a simple smile in the mouth region
  accompanied by a widening of the eyes
• Such smiles occur at the approach of familiar
  caregivers and are accompanied by right-brain
  activation
• Infants smiles at strangers usually lack the
  wide-eye component such smiles activate the left
  side of the brain

51
Emotional Development
The Development of Enjoyment Affection

• After a brief separation, infants often feel
  genuinely happy to see the caregiver
• this is a positive emotion that goes beyond the
  particular situation and expresses a lasting bond
  
• infants express these feelings not only to
  caregivers but also to favorite toys and to
  siblings
• Infants of this age smile more in the presence of
  people, especially familiar people, and their
  favorite objects
• Smiling is related partly to emotion and partly
  to communication with others
• smiling is a reflection of a socially shared
  emotion

52
Emotional Development
The Development of Enjoyment Affection

• Differential responsiveness to people on reunion
  is probably one of the earliest and most reliable
  ways of telling who the most important people in
  a babys life are
• In a stressful situation, if both the mother and
  another caregiver are present, infants will
  approach the mother
• Even when infants spend more hours of the day in
  the company of caregivers, as on an Israeli
  kibbutz, they show more positive responses when
  reunited with their mothers after a brief
  separation than when reunited with their
  metapelets, or caregivers
• These findings suggest that babies have a growing
  awareness of the specialness of certain people
  and respond to them in ways that communicate the
  depth of their feelings.

53
Emotional Development
The Development of Mixed Emotions

• In one study, a stranger presented dolls and
  teddy bears to infants of this age
• the babies alternatively reached out toward the
  objects and pulled their arms back
• Another study found evidence for mixed emotions
  by naturalistic observation in the infants homes
  
• this study found that pure expressions of joy,
  anger, distress, excitement, or fear occur only
  about half the time
• the other half of the time the infants face
  expresses more than one emotion

54
Emotional Development
The Development of Mixed Emotions

• Enjoyment, for example, often is expressed with
  elements of excitement or surprise, as when a
  smile is combined with a jaw-drop, producing a
  wide-open, smiling mouth
• This is called a play smile
• play smiles in 12-month-olds occur during games
  involving some physical activity or touch
  combined with an element of excitement
• These are games like tickle, chase, and tossing
  the baby in the air
• play smiles are more likely to occur in physical
  games and thus appear more during father-infant
  play than in mother-infant play
• Smiles have also been observed to occur with nose
  wrinkles, blinks, blows, and waves each
  combination reflects a slight variation in the
  meaning of the enjoyment

55
Emotional Development
The Development of Mixed Emotions

• In an effort to regulate emotion, distress will
  sometimes be combined with biting or stiffening
  the lip, showing that the baby is trying to
  control the crying
• one-year-old babies often alternate between
  distress and enjoyment, showing that they are
  able to maintain interest in a toy or in social
  interaction even though they may be tired or
  frustrated
• One-year-olds will sometimes look directly at the
  caregiver when crying, or they may pull at the
  caregiver, gesture to be picked up, or point to
  the offending object or event
• relaxed touching and holding by the caregiver can
  provide encouragement for the infants efforts to
  gain control over frustration, teaching the baby
  the capacity to persist
• the baby can learn that feeling distressed and
  frustrated does not necessarily mean the end of
  the gamethat these negative affects are both
  tolerable and manageable

56
Emotional Development
The Development of Mixed Emotions

• Another example of a mixed emotion appearing at
  this age is jealousy
• Year-old infants were observed while their
  mothers and a strange adult female played with a
  picture book or a child-sized doll
• infants showed more protest and negative
  vocalization and their play was more inhibited
  primarily in the mother-with-doll condition
• these responses were interpreted as jealousy
  because the infant was not upset about the mother
  with a book, nor about the strangers behavior
• jealousy is an example of wanting to approach the
  mother but avoiding her at the same time

57
Emotional Development
The Development of Mixed Emotions

• Because of the emergence of mixed emotions, new
  forms of parent-child play develop as a way to
  help infants understand and cope with emotional
  changes
• Teasing games are especially important in this
  regard
• a tease takes something that has a serious
  emotional tone and alters it into a more positive
  tone
• between 9 and 12 months, infants learn the art of
  teasing and also become able to appreciate the
  teases of others
• the contradictory messages in these games provide
  important opportunities for infants to learn how
  to regulate their emotions, how to affect other
  people, and also how to have
• teasing is relatively more frequent in
  father-infant than in mother-infant play

58
Emotional Development
The Development of Mixed Emotions

• These findings show that infants are becoming
  emotionally complex
• Not only are they aware of the relationships
  between objects and between events, they are also
  aware of the relationships between their
  different feelings

59
Emotional Development
Individual Differences in Emotion Regulation

• Infants of this age are learning emotion
  regulation to maintain some self-control in the
  face of highly arousing (either exciting or
  distressing) situations
• At this age, infants show differences in how they
  use people or objects to regulate emotions

60
Emotional Development
Individual Differences in Emotion Regulation

• Heart-rate measures have shown that even when
  infants do not cry during maternal separation,
  they do get aroused
• we may observe an extended glance at the door,
  perhaps a sad expression, and then a concerted
  effort to become involved with the toys
• it is almost as if the babies were using the toys
  to prevent feeling sad and lonely
• other infants who may ignore their mother when
  she returns from a separation also show elevated
  heart rates
• these babies are coping with their ambivalent
  feelings about their mother in relation to the
  feeling of loss they must have experienced when
  she was out of the room
• the manner in which the infants cope with these
  feelings is not necessarily adaptive, since it
  effectively removes them from the only source of
  comfort they might receive their mothers

61
Emotional Development
Individual Differences in Emotion Regulation

• Some infants are temperamentally more fearful and
  withdrawn, and they are more likely to become
  fearful or sad in stressful situations, such as
  during separations and in the presence of
  strangers or unusual situations
• These differences in emotionality are associated
  with individual differences in brain asymmetry
• infants who become easily distressed to the point
  of crying by a maternal separation have more
  marked differences between left- and right-brain
  activity in the frontal area
• these findings show that the infants ability to
  remain attentive to the situation, rather than to
  withdraw, may be in part responsible for higher
  levels of regulation of fear

62
Emotional Development
Individual Differences in Emotion Regulation

• This suggests that there is a relationship
  between cognition (attention) and emotion
  regulation
• some infants are more focused, attentive, and not
  easily upset
• others seem more emotional and require more
  support from adults in challenging situations

63
Emotional Development
Developments in the Infants Ability to Perceive
Emotion Intention Expressed by Other People

• By 6 or 7 months, infants are capable of
  perceiving a few simple facial expressions
• By 9 or 10 months, infants can distinguish more
  expressions, and they are beginning to use the
  emotional information displayed by others in a
  meaningful manner
• These developments in the perception of emotions
  in other people are one of the ways in which the
  infant is becoming increasingly aware of
  relationships

64
Emotional Development
Developments in the Infants Ability to Perceive
Emotion Intention Expressed by Other People

• Affective sharing occurs when infants wish to
  communicate their feelings to another person or
  to confirm their feelings with another person
• between 9 and 12 months of age, affective sharing
  is the most common response in social situations,
  and it tends almost always to involve positive
  emotions

65
Emotional Development
Developments in the Infants Ability to Perceive
Emotion Intention Expressed by Other People

• Social referencing occurs when infants face an
  uncertain situation. In this case, they look to
  another persons emotional expressions to help
  them decide what to do in this situation
• between 10 and 12 months, infants begin to use
  social referencing systematically, although
  social referencing does not occur as frequently
  as affective sharing in naturalistic situations
• by 10 months, if mothers display a negative
  expression, some infants will avoid crossing a
  visual cliff, avoid playing with toys or avoid
  approaching a rabbit in a cage, and they will
  show more aversive responses to strangers to whom
  the mothers show negative expressions
• negative expressions seem to have a more powerful
  effect on regulating infant behavior at this age
• opposite patterns of behavior can be seen if the
  mothers display positive expressions in these
  situations

66
Emotional Development
Developments in the Infants Ability to Perceive
Emotion Intention Expressed by Other People

• Underlying both affective sharing and social
  referencing is the development of the ability to
  delay an immediate emotional reaction to a
  situation and to evaluate how one is going to
  feel about the situation
• Appraisal is the ability to use cognitive
  comparisons of alternate interpretations to
  regulate ones emotions
• the appraisal at this age differs from the
  appraisal seen during the period between 6 and 9
  months
• in that earlier period, infants are often
  observed to show a slight delay in their
  emotional reactions, as if deciding what to feel
  in a particular situation
• after 10 months the infant looks to another
  person to decide what to feel

67
Emotional Development
Developments in the Infants Ability to Perceive
Emotion Intention Expressed by Other People

• Fe