ARYAN IMMIGRATION OR MIGRATION

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THE VEDIC AGE AND ADVENT OF IRON 1500-600 BCE
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SOURCES

• THE VEDIC CORPUS
• VEDAS, BRAHMANAS, SMIRITIS, EPICS, PURANAS AND
  THE UPANISHADS
• VEDA KNOWLEDGE
• ARYA NOBLE OR PURE
• ARYANS SEMI-NOMADIC TRIBES SPEAKING
  INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.

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THE VEDIC AGE 1500-500 BCE

• Advent of Aryans
• RGVEDIC PHASE 1500-1000 BCE
• Age of Iron Technology
• LATER VEDIC PHASE 1000-600 BCE
• Impact of Aryan culture Religion and Society
• The Caste or the Varna system

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INDO EUROPEAN MIGRATIONS
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ADVENT OF THE ARYANSTHE RGVEDIC PHASE
(1500-1000 BCE)

• The Aryans entered the Indian sub-continent
  through the Hindu Khush mountains and settled
  down in the land of seven rivers, also known as
  sapta-sindhu (or Punjab the land of seven
  rivers). In early years ( roughly from 1500 BCE
  to 1000 BCE) Aryan expansion was slow as they
  used stone, copper and bronze axes for clearing
  the forests.

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THE ARYANS

• The Aryans came as semi-nomadic pastoralists
  people living chiefly on the produce of the
  cattle, and for some time cattle-rearing remained
  their main occupation. In the Rgvedic times, the
  cow was the measure of value and was a very
  precious commodity. Thus gavishti, literally to
  search for cows came to mean to fight for cattle
  and lost cattle frequently led to tribal wars.

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THE ARYANS

• Many Rgvedic tribes are mentioned in the
  inter-tribal conflicts such as the Battle of Ten
  Kings. This battle was fought between the king
  Sudas of the Bharata tribe, who had dismissed his
  legendry priest Vishvamitra and had appointed
  Vashishta in his place. Vishvamitra gathered an
  army of ten tribes but Sudas became victorious in
  this battle.

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THE ARYANS

• But mostly, cattle stealing and land disputes
  were a frequent cause of inter-tribal wars.
• Wars were not confined to the tribal infighting
  alone. The Aryans had to contend with the
  indigenous population of northern India and these
  enemies were described as Panis and Dasas..

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THE ARYANS

• Panis were more troublesome, as they stole cattle
  and the battles with the Dasas were more
  protracted because they were well settled in
  those areas.
• Eventually the Dasas were defeated because later
  on, this term was used for the slaves in the
  Vedic texts.

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RG-VEDIC SOCIETY

• The basic social unit of Rgvedic society was
  gotra (lit. cowpen or cow shed). The ruling elite
  of each tribe had the function of not only
  acquiring cattle from other tribes, but also to
  protect the cattle that belonged to their tribe.
  The economic value of the cow enhanced the usual
  veneration to it. The later irrational attitude
  that cow is sacred might have originated because
  of this reason.

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RG-VEDIC SOCIETY

• As long as the society remained a tribal one
  devoid of any class divisions, all activities
  were collective and there was no specialization.
  Every member of the tribe participated in
  hunting, food gathering, waging wars, and
  defending his tribe from outside attacks. In this
  tribal setup all decisions were also taken
  collectively. The tribal members were represented
  in the village assemblies sabha and samiti.

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ADVENT OF IRON (LATER VEDIC PERIOD 1000-500 BCE)

• Between the composition of Rgveda and the age of
  Buddha, the Aryans pushed eastwards towards the
  Ganges and their culture adapted to the changed
  conditions.
• The shift of the Vedic zone from the Indus basin
  to the Gangetic plains implies forest clearance
  and permanent settling down of the Aryan tribes.
  The iron tools, especially, axes would have been
  an important tool to cut the trees.

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ADVENT OF IRON

• Around 800BCE the iron tools were used to clear
  the forest in the Gangetic doab. The sites
  excavated in this region reveals copper, bronze
  and large number of iron implements and painted
  grey ware pottery (PGW).
• This expansion gave rise to the age of epics such
  as Mahabharata, which refers to endless wars and
  bloodshed. The transition from pastoral nomadism
  to territorial kingdoms took place during the
  later Vedic period.

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THE GANGETIC DOAB
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LATER VEDIC PERIOD

• The more permanent settlements of the tribes led
  to a change of occupations. From rearing herds of
  cattle they took to agriculture, particularly
  after the discovery of iron when the task of
  clearing the forests became a less arduous task.
  To begin with, the land was jointly owned by the
  village but with the decline of tribal units, the
  land came to be divided between the families and
  thus the concept of private property was
  established.

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THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD

• The change to agriculture led to a wider range of
  occupations. The carpentry was a noble
  profession along with other artisanal occupations
  like the ironsmiths, potters, tanners, and the
  weavers. Agriculture led to trade and the
  settlements along the Ganges river made the
  communications much easier. The more wealthy
  landowners, who could afford to employ people to
  till their land were the potential traders.

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POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

• The tribes were organized as patriarchal groups,
  and in the early stages the chief of the tribe
  was merely a tribal leader. As the need for
  protection grew, the most capable protector was
  elected chief, and he gradually began to assume
  privileges generally associated with the kings.
  In the beginning, the Vedic king was a military
  leader, whose skills in war and the defence of
  his tribe were essential to maintain his position
  as the head.

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POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

• These kings had no right to tax people nor claim
  lands for themselves, and were only entitled to a
  portion of booty from the successful cattle raids
  or battles. Later, there was a change in the
  position of the kings, mainly due to the
  emergence of the idea of divinity in kingship.
  The mortal kings were invested with attributes of
  divinity and they became the final authority in
  the political setup.

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ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS

• The tribal kingdom contained tribes (jana),
  tribal units (vish) and the village (grama). The
  nucleus of the family (kula), with the eldest
  member being its head (kulapa). The king was
  assisted by a court of elders of the tribe and by
  the village headmen. Even closer to him were two
  officers the priest (purohita), and the military
  commander (senani). Spies and messengers
  completed the entourage of the Vedic kings.

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IMPACT OF VEDIC ARYANS RELIGION AND SOCIETY

• The Vedic religion was a sophisticated version of
  animism, the forces which they could not control
  or understand were given the status of gods. The
  most important god was Agni (fire god) who played
  a central role in sacrifice and dominated the
  domestic life, Indra (warrior god, god of thunder
  and destroyer) was god of strength, Varuna and
  Mitra (all seeing gods) was guardians of cosmic
  order and Soma personified the plant whose
  intoxicating juice was offered as an oblation.
  Other gods were solar deities Surya and Savitri.

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VEDIC RELIGION

• The central feature of the Aryan religious life
  was sacrifice or yagna. The goodwill of gods
  was necessary to the continuity of warring
  tribes, and the Aryans believed that the
  performance of yagnas persuaded the gods to grant
  them success in wars. The sacrifice was a solemn
  practice and the priests played an important role
  in these ceremonies.

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VEDIC RELIGIONSACRIFICE

• The ritual of sacrifice resulted in some
  interesting by-products. Mathematical knowledge
  grew, since it was necessary for the elaborate
  calculations required to establish the positions
  of the various objects in the sacrificial area.
  Arithmetic operations (ganit) such as addition,
  subtraction, multiplication, fractions, squares,
  cubes and roots are enumerated in the Vedic texts.

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VEDIC RELIGION ALTARS

• Examples of geometric knowledge are to be found
  in the Upanishads, which describe the Vedic
  ritual altars.

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VEDIC RELIGION ALTARS

• Pythagoras- the Greek mathematician and
  philosopher who lived in the 6th century BCE was
  familiar with the Upanishads and learnt his basic
  geometry from Sulva Sutra.

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VEDIC RELIGION CONCEPTION OF THE UNIVERSE

• Early Aryan conception of the universe was a
  limited one. The world grew out of a vast cosmic
  sacrifice and was maintained by the proper
  performance of the sacrifices. The dead were
  either buried or cremated. The association of
  fire with purification may have led to cremation
  becoming more popular. Life after death was
  envisaged in terms of punishment for sin, and
  reward for virtue.

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RGVEDIC PERIOD LITERATURE

• Vedas the Vedas are the oldest written religious
  texts in Sanskrit language and very useful in
  reconstructing the history of the Vedic period.
  They were orally transmitted by sages for
  centuries before being compiled and written down.
• Rgveda the oldest and basic text for all Vedic
  literature.
• Somaveda hymns about the soma sacrifices.

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RGVEDIC LITERATURE

• Yajurveda explanation of the sacrifices
  mentioned in the Rgveda. It depicts the social
  and religious conditions of that time as well.
• Atharveda contains mostly philosophical and
  mystical hymns.

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RGVEDIC PERIOD LITERATURE

• Brahmanas are the prose of sacrificial
  ceremonies. These explanatory treatises lay
  emphasis on ritualism.
• The Vedangas are the supplementary sections of
  Vedic literature and contains subjects like
  astronomy, medicine, war and music.
• The Vedanta the philosophy taught in the
  Upanishads.

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RGVEDIC PERIOD LITERATURE (CONTD.)

• The Upanishads contain the main idea that
  constitute the intellectual aspect of Hindu
  philosophy. They do not lay emphasis on rites,
  ceremonies and austerities. The Upanishads are
  dated between 800 BCE to 500 BCE. They are about
  100 to 150 in number.
• The Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Vedangas and the
  Upanishads formed the shruti part of the Vedic
  literature, which means directly heard from the
  sages.

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LATER VEDIC PERIOD LITERATURE

• The Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• Ramayana was written by Valmiki and portrays an
  ideal man god Rama and the ideal woman Sita and
  sacrifices made by the characters for the
  preservation of truth.
• Mahabharata is the longest single poem (100,000
  verses) in the world. The main action revolves
  around the famous struggle at Kurushetra between
  the Kauravas and the Pandyas.

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• The Puranas are the legends connected with the
  epics and the law books. They are 18 in number
  and Vishnu Purana, for example, treat subjects
  like primary creation, secondary creations,
  genealogies of gods and history of ancient
  dynasties.

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LATER VEDIC PERIOD LITERATURE

• Dharmashastra is the science of dharma and is
  a set of texts, which teach the eternal immutable
  dharma found in the Vedas. Dharma- Shastras can
  be divided into three categories rules for
  conduct, rules for legal procedure and rules for
  penance. Dharma- Shastas prescribe rules for
  everyone in the society so that each person can
  live according to dharma.

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LATER VEDIC PERIOD LITERATURE

• The Manusrmiti is the earliest law book compiled
  around 1st century C E.
• The Epics, Puranas and the Dharmashastras are the
  part of smirti literature which means the
  remembered version of the sayings of the sages.

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THE CASTE AND CLASS DISTINCTIONS

• When the Aryans came to India they were divided
  into three classes, the warriors or aristocracy,
  the priests and the common people. There was no
  consciousness of caste, as it is clear from
  remarks such as a bard am I, my father is a
  leech, and mother grinds corn. Professions were
  not hereditary nor there any rules limiting
  marriages within these classes.

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THE CLASS DISTINCTIONS

• The three class divisions merely facilitated
  social and economic organization. The first step
  in the direction of caste (as distinct from
  class) was taken, when the Aryans came into
  contact with the indigenous people of North
  India. They called them Dasas and described their
  physical features as inferior to them. Initially
  the division was between the Aryans and
  non-Aryans.

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THE CLASS DISTINCTIONS

• Dvija castes (the first being the physical birth
  and the second the initiation into the caste
  status), consisted of kshatriyas (warrior and
  aristocracy), the brahmans (priests), vaishyas
  (cultivators). The fourth casteshudras, were not
  dviyja born and they the Dasas and those of mixed
  Aryan and Dasa origins.

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JATIS OR SUB-CASTES

• This vertical division of the society made it
  easier in later centuries to accept new ethnic
  groups into the caste system.
• There were four castes and any changes in the
  society, economy led to further additions by
  according the new entries a sub-caste or jati.

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THE INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM IDEAL OR REALITY

• The actual mechanism of caste was not a formal
  division of society into four groups. The first
  three caste were probably a theoretical framework
  evolved by the Brahmans, into which they
  systematically arranged various professions.
• With the transition from pastorialism to settled
  agrarian economy, specialization of labor,

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CASTE SYSTEM

• gradually became a marked feature of Aryan
  society. The clearing of the forests and new
  settlements led to the emergence of a trading
  community engaged in the supply and exchange of
  goods. There was thus a natural separation
  between the agriculturists, those who cleared and
  colonized the land, and the traders, those who
  established

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CASTE SYSTEM

• the economic links between the settlements, the
  latter coming from the class of wealthier
  landowners who could afford economic speculation.
  
• The priests were not slow to realize the
  significance of such a division of society and
  the supreme authority which could be invested in
  the highest caste, thats why they gave religious
  sanction to these caste distinctions.

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PURUSHA SUKTA

• Rgvedic hymn in chapter X hymn 95 known as the
  Purusha sukta provided a mythical origin of these
  castes

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EXCERPTS FROM PURUSHASUKTA

• 11 When they divided Purusa how many portions did
  they make?What do they call his mouth, his arms?
  What do they call his thighs and feet?12 The
  Brahman was his mouth, of both his arms was the
  Rajanya made.His thighs became the Vaisya, from
  his feet the Sudra was produced.

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THE CASTE OR VARNA SYSTEM

• These class divisions or caste system were also
  known as varna (which means colour) that
  distinguished the Aryans from the non-Aryans.
• The continuance of caste was secured by its being
  made hereditary, and in order to be born in a
  higher caste or different one has to get through
  the cycle of birth and rebirth or

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SAMSARA CONCEPT

• Samsara. Under the influence of karma, the soul
  moves upwards and downwards on the wheel of
  rebirth, the round of birth, death and rebirth
  undertaken by all living beings. It is a cycle of
  transmigration from one living form into another.

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SAMSARA

• All worldly existence is subject to the cycle of
  samsara, which is thought of as having neither
  beginning nor end. Accordingly, the goal of human
  life is to be free or liberated from repeated
  births and deaths. The concept of samsara was
  first mentioned in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

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SAMSARA

• When a caterpillar has come to the end of a
  blade of grass, it reaches out to another blade,
  and draws itself over to it. In the same way the
  soul, having coming to the end of one life,
  reaches out to another body, and draws itself
  over to it (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 44.3-6a

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THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA

• The philosophical justification of the caste
  system became to be evolved in the doctrine of
  karma. Ones birth into a high or low caste was
  determined by ones action in previous life. The
  natural law of the society was the maintainence
  of the social order, in fact the caste system.
• Later on, the concept of karma was broadened into
  four categories

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THE GOALS OF LIFE.

• Artha fulfillment of duty by doing well in ones
  profession.
• Dharma following the prescribed rules and norms
  of ones caste.
• Kama satisfying the sensual desires in a just
  manner.
• Moksha the stage of attaining freedom from the
  cycle of birth and rebirth.

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THE GOALS OF LIFE

• Moksha is the end of the death and rebirth cycle
  and is classed as the fourth and ultimate artha
  (goal). It is the transcendence of all arthas. It
  is achieved by overcoming ignorance and desires.
  It is a paradox in the sense that overcoming
  desires also includes overcoming the desire for
  moksha itself. It can be achieved both in this
  life and after death.

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THE FOUR ASHARAMS

• In order to achieve the four goals, the Vedic
  texts prescribed the four stages, too, which came
  to be known as the ashramas. All twice born
  castes were theoretically supposed to spend their
  lives in this manner.
• Brahmacharin (student life) from the age of five
  to twenty-five, they should be leading an austere
  student life learning their

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THE ASHRAMAS

• hereditary professions and after graduating from
  there they should come back to become Grahastra
  (householder), from the age of twenty-five to
  fifty one should lead a life of a householder and
  follow their professional obligations.
  Vanaprasta (wandering ascetic), from the age of
  fifty to seventy-five, one can take a
  semi-retirement

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THE ASHRAMAS

• from the professional and domestic life and could
  go to the forest for
• mediation and inspire for Moksha.
• Sanyasin (asectic), from the age of seventy-five
  one could spend the rest of one's life trying to
  get moksha or freedom from the cycle of birth and
  rebirth.

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THE SHRAMIC CHALLENGE

• The Vedic age can be taken as a starting point
  for many Indian institutions, the caste system,
  religious sacrifice and the rise of philosophical
  schools of thought challenging the Vedic or
  Brahmanical beliefs right from the beginning. The
  development of Indian culture as we know today
  stems from the active participation and
  opposition of the Vedic culture, beliefs and
  social institutions.