Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong

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Chapter SevenUtilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a universal teleological
system It calls for the maximization of goodness
in society - that is, the greatest amount of
goodness for the greatest number of people- and
not merely the good of the agent
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Two Types of Ethical Systems

• Deontology From the Greek word deon meaning
  duty and logos meaning logic. The center of
  value is the act or kind of act certain features
  in the act itself have intrinsic value.
• Teleological ethics From the Greek word telos
  meaning goal directed. The center of value is
  the outcome or consequences of the act.

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Classic UtilitarianismJeremy Bentham

• Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
• He invented a scheme for measuring pain and
  pleasure that he called the hedonic calculus.
• According to Bentham, one should maximize
  pleasure and minimize suffering.

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Two Main Features of Utilitarianism

• The consequentialist principle the rightness or
  wrongness of an act is determined by the goodness
  or badness of the results that flow from it
• The utility or hedonist principle the only thing
  that is good in itself is some specific type of
  state (ie. pleasure, happiness, welfare)

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John Stuart Mill

• John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
• Mill wanted to distinguish happiness from mere
  pleasure.
• Eudaimonistic utilitarianism
• He defines happiness in terms of a higher order
  of pleasures or satisfactions.
• Higher or more refined pleasure are superior to
  lower pleasures.

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Act- and Rule-Utilitarianism

• Act-utilitarianism An act is right if and only
  if it results in as much good as any available
  alternative.
• Rule-utilitarianism An act is right if it is
  required by a rule that is itself a member of a
  set of rules whose acceptance would lead to
  greater utility for society than any available
  alternative.

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The Strengths of Utilitarianism

• A single principle, an absolute system with a
  potential answer for every situation.
• It seems to get at the substance of morality
  because it has a material core promoting human
  (and possibly animal) flourishing and reduce
  suffering.
• Well-suited to address the problem of posterity

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Criticism of UtilitarianismProblems with
Formulating Utilitarianism

• How do you measure the term greatest?
• The greatest number of people over the greatest
  amount of happiness how to define?
• What about those who are not in the greatest
  amount?
• Is it total or general happiness?

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The Comparative Consequences Objection

• We normally do not know the long term
  consequences of all of our actions.
• Consequences go on into the infinite future, so
  we really cannot know them.
• Calculation is impossible.

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Two kinds of Consequences
1) Actual consequences of an act 2) Consequences
that could reasonably have been expected to
occur
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Two Corresponding Right Actions
1) Absolutely right if it has the best actual
consequences (as per consequence 1) 2)
Objectively right if it is reasonable to expect
that it will have the best consequences (as per
consequence 2)
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The Consistency Objection to Rule-Utilitarianism
When pushed to its logical limits, it must either
become a deontological system or transform itself
into act-utilitarianism
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The No-Rest Objection
We always have an infinite set of possible acts
to choose from, and even if I can be excused from
considering all of them, I can be fairly sure
that there is often a preferable act that I could
be doing.
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The Publicity Objection
Moral principles must be known to all, but
utilitarians do not claim everyone should act
like a utilitarian.
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The Relativism Objection
It seems to endorse different rules in different
societies Also, the more serious worry is that
it might become so plastic that it justifies any
moral rule.
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Criticism of the Ends Justifying Immoral Means
1) If a moral theory justifies actions that we
universally deem impermissible, then that moral
theory must be rejected 2) Utilitarianism
justifies actions that we universally deem
impermissible 3) Therefore, utilitarianism must
be rejected
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The Lying Objection
It leads to the counterintuitive endorsement of
lying when it serves the greater good
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The Integrity Objection
Personal integrity can be violated by commanding
that we violate our most central and deeply held
principles
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The Justice Objection
Utilitarians could consider actions that go
against standards of justice that most of us
think should never be dispensed with