Introduction to GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

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Introduction to GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
CE 413

• Dr. Ahmet Çizmeli
• METU GGIT
• Geodetic and Geographic Information Technologies
• Fall 2008
• acizmeli_at_metu.edu.tr

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Introduction to GIS

• Information systems
• Geographic information
• What is GIS?
• Components of the modern GIS
• GIS applications
• Advantages of GIS
• GIS Today

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Information systems

• Life on earth Problems
• Making the decision of living a life on earth
  implies the challenge of facing problems
• Various types of problems with varying
  intensities some are recurrent, some are
  unexpected, some are mortal, some are
  insignificant to bother etc...
• In order to survive on the planet earth, we have
  to learn to deal with problems. HOW do we do
  this?
• Making observations, analyzing data, making
  decisions

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Information systems Some definitions

• Data
• Facts, numbers, words, images, measurements of a
  set of variables.
• Information Systems
• A system of persons, data records and activities
  that process the data and information in an
  organization, and it includes the organization's
  manual and automated processes
• Decision Support System (DSS)
• A DSS is an interactive software-based system
  intended to help decision makers compile useful
  information from raw data, documents, personal
  knowledge, and/or business models to identify and
  solve problems and make decisions.

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Geographic information systems (GIS)

• In order to start solving problems, we will have
  to ask questions. A great majority of problems we
  encounter will have us ask the following question
  what is where?
• Where ?
• The geographic location on earth
• What ?
• Characteristics of attributes.
• A GIS helps us answer the question what is
  where?

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GIS spatial or geographic?

• Spatial may have to do with any reference frame
  
• Medical images are referenced to human body
• Engineering drawings are referenced to a
  mechanical object
• Architecture drawings are referenced to a
  building
• Geographic has to do with the Earth
• Its two-dimensional surface
• Its three-dimensional atmosphere, oceans,
  sub-surface
• Geographic data should be georeferenced.
• Hence the term geospatial.

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Geographic information systems (GIS)

• With the use of GIS software, we create a
  conceptual and computerized model of the earth.
  The logical steps are
• Collecting data
• Organizing data
• Making abstractions (models) of real-life
  processes that interact with collected data
• Analyzing model results
• Making conclusions
• Making decisions.

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Geographic information systems (GIS)

• A geographic information system should contain
• Data precise and accurate enough for our needs
• Data covering the right geographical area
• Data describing the attributes of interest
• Relevantly organized data
• Data at the required scale of analysis.

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Geographic information systems (GIS)

• Various ways of defining GIS
• A GIS is a computer system, which can collect,
  store and analyze spatial (geographic) data
• GIS is a collection of computer hardware,
  software and users to make up a system, which
  collects, stores, manipulates and displays
  spatial information about the earth
• A GIS is a computer based system that provides
  the following four sets of capabilities to handle
  geor-eferenced data 1. input 2. data management
  (data storage and retrieval) 3. manipulation and
  analysis 4. output (Aronoff, 1989)

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Geographic information systems (GIS)

• Other terms traditionally used for GIS
• Land Information System
• Spatial Information System
• AM/FM-Automated Mapping and Facilities Management
• Geo-Information System
• Land Resources Information System
• Resource Information System
• Spatial Data Management and Analysis System
• Spatial Data Handling System
• Environmental Information System
• Image Based Information System
• Multipurpose Cadastre

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Components of a GIS

• GIS depends on the integration of three aspects
  of computer technology
• Software for manipulating, displaying plotting
  data
• Database management system (graphic non-graphic
  data)
• Algorithms and techniques for spatial analysis.

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Components of a GIS
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Components of a GIS
DBMS
Spatial analysis tools
Graphical capabilities
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Components of a GIS

• Software
•  Software developers prepare programs (or
  packages) to capture, store and analyze
  geographic data in two parts
• core package
• application package
• Core Package
• graphic processing function
• database management functions
• basic cartographic and geographic analysis
  utilities.
• Application Packages
• They are specially prepared to solve certain
  problems
• prepared by manufacturer by the order of user
• prepared by a third party for the user
• prepared by user with macro language of the
  software

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Components of a GIS
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Components of a GIS

• Two main categories for softwares
• Commercial software
• Open-source software
• Commercial Software
• Closed source This is the traditional business
  model
• Developed only one company or organization
• Some many popular (and best?) software are
  commercial software
• Professional-grade support is usually available
  from the vendor
• The vendor has the last word on the development
  strategies

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Components of a GIS

• Open-Source Software
• Free Anyone can use it.
• Comes with the source code. Anyone can modify it.
• Relatively less complex software
• Support is usually available from the other
  users
• Users develop it collaboratively over the
  internet
• The development strategies are decided by the
  users
• Integration with other similar software is
  seamless thanks to open standards.

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Components of a GIS

• OpenSource Software
• Free Redistribution The license shall not
  restrict any party from selling or giving away
  the software
• Source Code The program must include source
  code, and must allow distribution in source code
  as well
• Derived Works The license must allow
  modifications and derived works, and must allow
  them to be distributed under the same terms as
  the license of the original software
• No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups
• No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor
  The license must not restrict anyone from making
  use of the program in a specific field of
  endeavor
• License Must Not Restrict Other Software The
  license must not place restrictions on other
  software that is distributed along with the
  licensed software
• License Must Be Technology-Neutral.

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Components of a GIS

• Some examples for commercial GIS softwares
• Arc/Info(ESRI), Microstation(Intergraph),
  MapInfo, SmallWorld, CARIS, etc...
• Some examples for open source GIS softwares
• Grass, Quantum GIS, uDig, openJUMP, etc...
• A comparison of the most popular GIS software
  available today

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Components of a GIS
GIS data

• GIS data have two important elements
• geographic (spatial) element
• attribute (non-geographic) element

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Components of a GIS
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Components of a GIS
GIS data quality

• Accuracy how often data will be correct?
• Precision fineness of the scale
• Time over what period of time?
• Currency how recently the data were collected?
• Coverage portion of the area where data are
  available.

GIS data is organized in layers.
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Components of a GIS
GIS data layers

• A data layer consists of logically related
  geographic features and their attributes.
• Why do we segragate geographic data into separate
  layers ?
• To simplify the combination of features
• To perform manipulation and analysis on multiple
  data sets
• To let a smaller scale database lead to a larger
  scale database showing more detail.

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Components of a GIS

• Layered municipal spatial data
• Basemaps / topographic maps
• Cadastral maps (lot boundaries, parcel
  boundaries, easement and right-of-way)
• Urban planning maps
• AM/FM data (sewer system, water system,
  electricity, communication)
• Street network data (road centerlines,
  intersections, lights, trees,)
• Area data (demographic, tax rate, school
  district, emergency response,)
• Environmental data (soil map, flood plain maps,
  noise level map, streams, water bodies,
  parks,)...

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Components of a GIS
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Typical advantages of GIS

• Why Develop a GIS?
• Increased productivity
• Reduced costs
• Preparation for future competition.
• Typical Benefits
• Better management and planning
• Faster responses
• Middle/long-term data preserving
• Reduced costs
• Better service
• Improved system maintenance.

• Cost Benefits
• Cost reductions
• Cost avoidance
• Increased revenue.

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GIS costs

• Costs of GIS change tremendously due to
• system size
• configuration
• level of sophistication.
• Capital costs
• initial database, software, hardware
• implementation.
• Operating costs
• personnel training and support
• hiring new personnel if necessary or changing
  location
• overhead, maintenance, utilities, supplies.

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GIS costs

• 30 of total cost
• ?hardware software
• and maintenance of software
• newer versions may cost more than the older
• 70 of total cost
• ? database
• prepare yourself or have it prepared by others
• buy from others
• update.

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GIS costs

• Database costs
• ground surveys, aerial photography, topographic
  mapping
• preparation of property maps, facility records
  etc.
• purchase of satellite images and high-resolution
  vector data
• preprocessing/quality control labor costs.

Despite all these costs, GIS is still
advantageous as compared with other information
systems ...
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Components of a GIS

• Functional Components of a GIS include
• Data input and conversion
• Various data formats on the market today
• Data management
• The way one organizes data makes the whole
  difference
• Data processing
• Data alone means little. Process-it to give it
  a value
• Data analysis and modelling
• Results have to be analyzed and interpreted
• Data output
• Results and conclusions have to be
  communicated with others.

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Components of a GIS
GIS data is characterized by

• Data elements Points, lines, polygons, raster
  images
• Data structure Graphic elements (points, lines,
  polygons) linked to related data tables
• Data attributes Ancillary data
• Data location Provided by coordinates and map
  projections
• Topology Provided by the core GIS engine

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Components of a GIS
Data characteristics Storage format, geometry,
editing capabilities, extent, georeferencing,
attributes
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Components of a GIS
Traditional (desktop) GIS design
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Components of a GIS
Contemporary components

• Geospatial (Conversion) Libraries GDAL, OGR,
  FDO, GeoTools
• Computer networks Internet, LAN, WAN
• World Wide Web Web services
• GML XML-based Geography Markup Language
• WMS, WFS, WCS Web Map, Feature, Coverage
  services. Open standards for exchange of data
  carried over HTTP.

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Components of a GIS
Internetworked GIS designs of today
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Components of a GIS

• Architecture of modern GIS
• At the beginner's level, there is usually little
  consideration for the reuse of the data /
  software / algorithms / people in the middle/long
  term
• This lack of data/experience sharing often
  creates duplicates, making project management
  evermore challenging with time
• Some modern GIS applications of today may involve
  hundreds or thousands of users getting connected
  to a central GIS server over the WWW.

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Components of a GIS

• Modern GIS architectures
• Common GIS standards, software code reuse,
  centralized database management systems are
  examples among the many modern tools available to
  the scientific community today.
• The use of such tools for the development of
  inter-operable long-term GIS systems introduces
  the concept of Societal GIS implementations.

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Components of a GIS
Societal GIS
An example to such a societal design is in the
state of Qatar, joining more than 16 departments
in the use of a nationwide GIS http//www.gisqat
ar.org.qa/
Although not the best spatial application around,
this system can be counted is among the pioneers
in data standardization.
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Components of a GIS

• There exists three key parts of a GIS

• The user interface
• Geospatial tools (functions, algorithms)
• The data management sytem.

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Components of a GIS
The (graphical) user interface

• Displays data on the screen
• Accepts input from the user
• Executes geospatial functions according to the
  user input
• Helps edit, change, transform data
• Redraws data on screen or on paper

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Components of a GIS
The graphical user interface
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Components of a GIS
Geospatial tools (functions, algorithms)

• Measure distances, calculate areas
• Combine maps of the same area
• Help users judge on the suitability of areas for
  different purposes
• Help users make decisions about real-world
  operations
• Help making predictions on future.

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Components of a GIS
Geospatial tools
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Components of a GIS
Geospatial tools
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Components of a GIS
Geospatial tools
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Components of a GIS
The data management sytem

• Can be a spatial or non-spatial DBMS
• Accepts (spatial) queries from the user
• Executes queries, gather resulting data
• Rearranges data according to user's need
• Returns parts of the database to the core engine
• Speeds-up the search of relevant data
• Helps to keep inventories of what is where

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Components of a GIS
The data management sytem
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Components of a GIS
The data management sytem
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Components of a GIS
There are four major types of GIS architecture

• According to the specific needs of the project,
  one may use
• Desktop
• Client-server
• Centralized desktop
• Centralized server.

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Components of a GIS

• Desktop GIS
• The traditional design
• Network of standalone GIS running on standalone
  computers, each using its own data
• Another similar configuration is when the whole
  data file is being served on the network.

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Components of a GIS

• Client-server
• The data is being served by a central DBMS
  server
• Only the part of data related with the DBMS Query
  is returned to the client
• More than one client can use a copy of the same
  data
• Each client use its own copy of the core spatial
  analysis routines.

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Components of a GIS

• Centralized desktop
• Similar to the previous client-server model
• Thin client PCs serve only for data
  visualization
• The core spatial routines and the application
  server are on a central server
• Remote machines have full access of the GIS
  software that runs on the server
• The central database management system may be on
  a different server.

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Components of a GIS

• Centralized server
• Used in larger projects
• Thin and thick clients on the same server
  altogether
• Even simple web browsers can serve as a client
• For larger projects, the workload may be
  distributed over more than one GIS server

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Components of a GIS

• Example of a thin client
• A stripped-down version of GRASS running on Sharp
  Zaurus
• Connected to the internet through WAP/GPRS
• Perfect for field sampling campaigns or LBS
  (Location-based services)
• GIS on handheld computers is the future of the
  Geospatial computing

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More information on GIS

• Various information sources on GIS
• Internet portals and data repositories
• Books
• Magazines and journals
• Conferences

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Magazines and internet portals on GIS

• http//www.geabios.com/ (Slovenia-based
  Geo-enabled website)
• http//freegis.org/ (Repository of some free GIS
  tools)
• http//www.osgeo.org/ (OpenSource GIS initiative
  hosting many projects)
• http//swik.net/GIS (GIS section of the
  OpenSource software repository SWIK)
• http//www.gis.com/ (A GIS portal by ESRI,
  developers of the famous ArcGIS)
• http//www.directionsmag.com/ (A portal about
  Geospatial Technologies at large)
• http//gislounge.com/, http//www.gisuser.com/
  (Portals with articles, tutorials, job
  announcements, software listings etc.)
• http//www.giscafe.com/ (A starting point for
  various types of info on GIS)

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Magazines and internet portals on GIS

• http//www.opengeospatial.org/ (Non-profit
  consortium developing OpenStandards)
• http//geoconnexion.com/ (Magazine and internet
  portal)
• http//www.geoplace.com (Portal of the
  publishers of the GeoWorld magazine)
• http//www.gisdevelopment.net/ (India-based
  portal specialized in Asian trends)
• http//www.geocomm.com/ (A starting point for
  beginners. Mostly commercial tools).

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Scientific journals on GIS

• Annals of the Association of American
  Geographers
• Cartography and Geographic Information Systems
• Computers and Geosciences
• Geographical Analysis
• International Journal of Geographical
  Information Science
• ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote
  Sensing
• Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing
• ...
• many other journals and magazines ...

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Books on GIS

• Aronoff, S (1989). Geographic Information
  Systems A Management Perspective. WDL
  Publications, Ottawa, Canada
• Burrough, P A (1986). Principles of Geographical
  Information Systems for Land Resources
  Assessment, Clarendon, Oxford
• Burrough and MacDonel. (1998) Principles of
  Geographical Information Systems, Oxford
  University Press
• Maguire, D.J., M. F. Goodchild and D. W. Rhind,
  1991. Geographical Information Systems, Longman
  Scientific and Technical, Essex
• MacGuire et al (1999) Geographical Information
  Systems, Longman Scientifical tecnichal
• Korte, G.B. (2001) The GIS Book How to
  Implement, Manage, and Assess the Value of
  Geographic Information Systems, ONWORD Press

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Conferences on GIS

• Applied Geography Conference The Applied
  Geography Conferences have provided a forum for
  the exchange and critique of ideas related to the
  application of geographic concepts, analytical
  techniques, data, and methods since 1978.
• ESRI ESRI hosts several annual conferences
  including the International User Conference and
  Education User Conference
• Geospatial World Sponsored by the Intergraph
  GeoSpatial Users Community and Intergraph Mapping
  and GIS Solutions, Geospatial World is an
  international forum for training, networking, and
  industry insight.
• GIScience Held every even year (2004, 2006,
  etc.), GIScience brings together scientists from
  academia, industry, and government to analyze
  progress and to explore new research directions.
  The conference program aims to attract leading
  GIScience researchers from all fields to reflect
  the interdisciplinary breadth of GIScience,

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Conferences on GIS

• GITA Geospatial Information Technology Industry
  Conferences and Events
• NACIS Annual meeting of the North American
  Cartographic Information Society
• SCGIS The Society for Conservation Geographic
  Information Systems hosts an annual conference to
  discuss and promote local and global conservation
  of natural and cultural resources.
• URISA The Urban and Regional Information
  Systems Association hosts a major annual
  conference and several other specialized
  conferences throughout the year

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Some GIS Application Areas
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GIS Applications

• GIS can be applied in any area, since questions
  below exist in any subject
• Location What is at .. ?
• Condition Where is it ?
• Trend What has changed since ?
• Routing What is the best way ?
• Pattern What special patterns exist ... ?
• Model What if ?

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GIS Applications

• Some of the regular tasks achieved with a GIS
• Within a targeted environment, identification of
  locations meeting specific criteria
• Exploration of spatial and other relationships
  among data sets within that environment
• Display of the selected environment both
  graphically and numerically either before or
  after analysis.

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GIS Applications

• Formal disciplines GIS are based on
• Remote Sensing
• Geodesy
• Photogrammetry
• Surveying
• Cartography
• Computer science
• Mathematics
• Statistics

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GIS Applications
Disciplines making use of GIS

• Oceanography
• Agriculture
• Biology
• Environmental sciences
• Ecology
• Geography
• Sociology
• Archaeology
• Anthropology

• Geodesy and geomatics
• Civil Engineering
• Geology
• Geophysics
• Petroleum
• City and region planning
• Mining
• Criminology

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GIS Applications

• Areas of application
• Business GeoBusiness
• Census, elections
• Surveying and mapping
• Map and database publishing
• Public health and safety (hospital, police,
  fire)
• Real estate information management

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GIS Applications

• Areas of application
• Municipal Applications (infrastructure,...)
• Engineering Applications
• Forest Development and Management/Erosion and
  deforestation
• Agriculture and land use, harvest prognoses

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GIS Applications

• Areas of application
• Environmental applications (vegetation,
  pollution, ...)
• Hydrology, water pollution (drainage patterns,
  water catchments, )
• Geology (DTM, fault-line detection, mineral
  detection)
• Transportation, vehicle tracking, navigation
  systems, ...

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GIS Applications

• Areas of application
• Regional development and planning
• Oil operations
• Military applications
• Archeology
• Education and research