Triangulation

1
Research Methods in Psychology(Pp 45-59)
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Observations

• Can be used in both experimental and
• nonexperimental research can be used
• quantitatively or qualitatively

3
Types of Observations

• Covert observations are when the researcher
  pretends to be an ordinary member of the group
  and observes in secret. Though participant
  expectancy is less of a problem, ethical dilemmas
  occur with the deception.
• Overt observations are when the researcher tells
  the group he or she is conducting research (i.e.
  they know they are being observed) increases
  participant expectancy which may alter the
  participants natural behavior (Hawthorne effect).

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Participant Observations

• Researcher blends in with the natural environment
• Have high ecological validity
• May be covert or overt
• If covert, reliability and validity increase but
  ethics is a concern
• If overt, ethical dilemmas are reduced but
  participant expectancy may increase

5
Nonparticipant Observations

• Researcher does not blend in with the natural
  environment
• May be covert or overt
• If covert, reliability and validity increase but
  ethics is a concern
• If overt, ethical dilemmas are reduced but
  participant expectancy may increase

6
Naturalistic Observations

• May have high ecological validity
• Ethnographies document group cultural practices
• Detailed accounts of behavior possible often kept
  through diaries
• May be covert or overt
• If covert, reliability and validity increase but
  ethics is a concern
• If overt, ethical dilemmas are reduced but
  participant expectancy may increase

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Setting Up Observations

• Determine goal of observation
• Learn about topic (ie, addiction)
• Choose a research site
• Decide on researcher role
• Gain access to participants

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Carrying Out An Observation

• If overt, build and maintain rapport with
  participants
• Collect quality data through rigorous notes
  collect thick descriptions (extremely detailed
  accounts of the setting and context as well as
  what happened)
• Focus on what is important for the study
• Conduct interviews with key participants
• Check interpretations with other researchers
• Debrief participants

9
Analyzing Data

• Grid method
• Controls experimenter bias
• Allows use of descriptive statistics
• Inductive Methods
• As with interviews, inductive methods (such as
  grounded theory) are the best choice for
  analyzing qualitative observations.
• Researchers constantly code data into categories
  until a point is reached when no new themes
  emerge.

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Pros and Cons of Observation Research

• Pros
• It is valuable to see how people behave in a
  natural setting and an observation provides very
  detailed qualitative information which can be
  used as a starting point for further, more
  controlled research.
• It can be used when other methods might be
  unethical.
• Cons
• The presence of observers could influence the
  behaviour of those being observed, and it is
  difficult to control extraneous variables.
• It is difficult for another psychologist to
  replicate the observation (inter-rater
  reliability)
• Because there are so many variables which could
  affect behaviour it is not possible to draw
  conclusions about cause and effect

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DVD(Qualitative Research Methods in the Social
Sciences)