Biology Review Go to http://www.usatestprep.com/front/login.php Username is Grayson Student Password is Newton55 Click

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Biology ReviewGo to http//www.usatestprep.com/fr
ont/login.phpUsername is GraysonStudent
Password is Newton55Click Accept below the
password boxes.Click on the Microscope Icon that
is entitled Science at the top left hand corner
of the screen.On this page you will see the
general breakdown of the End Of Coarse Test
(EOCT).
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Biochemistry

• 4 organic compounds
• Proteins
• made up of amino acids.
• Control all chemical reactions in the body.
• Enzymes proteins that speed up the rate of a
  chemical reaction.
• Carbohydrates examples are starch and sugar.
• Building block monosaccarides
• Provide cell with energy
• Lipids examples are fats
• Insulate the body and serve as long term energy
  reserve.
• Make up of a glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains
• Nucleic Acids examples are DNA and RNA
• The genetic code for life.
• Basic building block is called nucleotide (sugar,
  phosphate, nitrogen base)

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Characteristics of Life

• Living things
• Are made of cells
• Reproduce
• Are based on a universal genetic code
• Grow and develop
• Obtain and use materials for energy
• Respond to their environment
• Maintain stable internal conditions (Homeostasis)
• Change over time

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Cells

• Eukaryote has a nucleus and organelles
  (Protist, fungi, plant, animal cells)
• Prokaryote NO nucleus or membrane bound
  organelles (Ex. Bacteria)
• Animal cells vs. Plant cells
• Plant cell has cell wall and chloroplast
• Animal has lysosome
• Cell Parts and Functions
• Nucleus- control center of cell
• Cell Wall- protects plant cell
• Cell membrane- allows materials to move in and
  out of cell
• Cytoplasm- holds organelles in place in the cell
• Endoplasmic Reticulum- contains ribosomes,
  transportation system of the cell
• Ribosomes- makes proteins
• Golgi Body- organizes and packages materials for
  cell
• Mitochondria- provides energy for cell
• Vacuole- stores materials for cell
• Chloroplast- site of protein synthesis in plant
  cell
• Lysosome- breaks down food in animal cell
• Chromosomes- found in nucleus, contain genetic
  information
• Cell Theory

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Cell Processes

• Diffusion
• Movement of molecules from an area of high
  concentration to an area of low concentration
  across a membrane
• Passive transport (requires no energy)
• Osmosis
• Diffusion of water across a membrane
• Passive transport
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Diffusion of glucose (large molecule) across a
  membrane
• Passive transport
• Active Transport
• Movement from a low concentration to high
  concentration (against the flow)
• Requires energy

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Cell Processes

• Endocytosis
• Cell membrane engulfs particle to bring it inside
• Active transport
• Exocytosis
• Cell membrane sends out particle to get rid of it
• Active transport

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Photosynthesis

• 6CO2 6H2O ? C6H12O6 6O2
• Takes place in PLANTS (chloroplasts)
• Light Dependent Reaction (in Grana)
• Requires light energy
• NADP and H join to form NADPH
• Oxygen gas given off as a byproduct
• Light Independent Reaction (in Stroma)
• ATP NADPH join, using CO2
• Sugars (C6H12O6) given off as a byproduct

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Cellular Respiration

• Process of breaking down food molecules to
  release energy
• C6H12O6 6O2 ? 6CO2 6H2O
• Opposite of photosynthesis
• 3 main stages
• Glycolosis - C6H12O6 broken in half to make
  pyruvic acid
• If oxygen present goes to Krebs Cycle
• If no oxygen present goes to Fermentation
• Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) takes out
  oxygen and pyruvic acid turned into CO2 enzymes
  combine hydrogen and oxygen to form H2O
• Fermentation
• Alcoholic fermentation yeasts and other
  microorganisms use pyruvic acid to make CO2
  (makes bread rise)
• Lactic Acid fermentation muscle cells convert
  pyruvic acid to lactic acid

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Cell Division

• Mitosis
• Division of somatic cells (all cells in the body
  EXCEPT gametes (sperm/eggs)
• Interphase cell growth and DNA replication
  (longest part of cycle)
• Prophase chromosomes condense ? chromatin pair
  up to make sister chromatids
• Metaphase chromatids lined up in center
  (metaphase plate)
• Anaphase chromatids separate and pull to
  opposite ends of cells
• Telophase chromosomes uncondense nucleus forms
  around them
• Cytokenesis cell splits into two daughter cells
• End Result
• Two new daughter cells are formed.
• Each daughter cell has same number of chromosomes
  as parent cell

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Cell Division

• Meiosis
• Division of gametes (sperm and eggs)
• Same process as mitosis, but it does 2 cycles
• Interphase 1 Prophase 1 Metaphase 1
  Anaphase 1 Telophase 1 Cytokenesis
• 2 daughter cells formed with 2 copies of every
  chromosome They go on to divide again
• Interphase 2 Prophase 2 Metaphase 2
  Anaphase 2 Telophase 2 Cytokenesis
• Now 4 daughter cells are formed (2 cells from
  cycle 1 have divided again)
• Each daughter cell now has 1 copy of every
  chromosome (will join with other chromosomes
  during fertilization)
• End Result
• 4 daughter cells are formed.
• - Each cell has half the number of chromosomes as
  the parent.

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DNA

• Deoxyribonucleic Acid- double stranded.
• Found inside of nucleus in cells
• Cells read DNA code sequences and translate them
  using the sequences of 4 bases
• Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine
• A-T G-C
• The way these bases pair up determines what
  proteins are made

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RNA

• Ribonucleic Acid- single stranded
• Messenger RNA mRNA reads DNA code and
  carries it to ribosome
• Ribosomal RNA rRNA makes up the ribosome
  where proteins are made
• Transfer RNA tRNA transfers each amino acid
  needed for protein synthesis as coded by mRNA
  from DNA
• No Thymine (T) ? Uracil (U)
• A-U G-C

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Genetics

• The scientific study of heredity (passing of
  traits from one generation to the next)
• Dominant Allele the trait that always shows
  physically and is represented by a CAPITAL
  LETTER.
• Example BB or Bb
• Recessive Allele only shows if the dominant
  allele is not present and is represented by a
  lowercase letter.
• Example bb
• Punnett Square diagram showing gene
  combinations that might result from a genetic
  cross.
• Homozygous organism with 2 identical alleles
  (also called true breeding)
• Example TT or tt
• Heterozygous organism with 2 different alleles
  (also called hybrid)
• Example Tt

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Genetics

• Phenotype physical characteristic of the
  organism.
• Example Tall plant
• Genotype genetic makeup of the organism.
• Example Tt, TT, tt
• Incomplete Dominance one allele is not dominant
  over another.
• Example Red flower is crossed with white flower
  to produce a pink flower.

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Genetics

• Codominance both alleles of the genes
  contribute to the phenotype of the organism.
• Example Chicken with black feathers crossed
  with white feathered chicken appears speckled
  with black and white feathers.
• Polygenic Traits trait controlled by 2 or more
  genes that shows a wider range of phenotypes.
• Example range of skin color in humans.
• Gene Map diagram showing the relative locations
  of each known gene on a particular chromosome.

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Ecology

• Study of interactions among organisms and their
  environment
• Abiotic factors not living (water, air)
• Biotic factors living (animals, plants)
• Levels of organization (smallest to largest)
• Individual Species (can breed produce
  offspring)
• Population (same species in the same area)
• Community (different populations in the same
  area)
• Ecosystem (all organisms in a particular place
  biotic only)
• Biome (group of ecosystems with same climate)
• Biosphere (all parts of earth abiotic and
  biotic)
• Heterotrophs/Consumers cannot make their own
  food (must eat something else) (humans)
• Autotrophs/Producers make their own food
  (plants)
• Food web- overlapping food chains
• Biomass- total amount of living tissue at each
  level of a food chain. Highest amount of biomass
  is at producer level.

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Ecology

• Relationships between organisms
• Mutualism both benefit
• Bees and flowers (bees get nectar from flower,
  flower gets pollination done)
• Commensalism one benefits and other is not
  harmed or benefited
• Whales and barnacles (barnacles live on whales
  and eat little organisms whale not helped or
  harmed)
• Parasitism one benefits one harmed
• Humans and tapeworms (tapeworm lives in
  intestines and gets nutrients that are supposed
  to go to humans body human suffers from
  malnutrition)

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Ecology

• Biomes
• Tropical rain forest
• Hot, humid, lots of rain, lots of plants and
  animals
• Found in South America, SE Asia, Southern India,
  NE Australia (along equator)
• Deciduous forest
• Warm year round, rainy/dry seasons, rich soils
• Found in Africa, Central America, Mexico, India,
  Australia, tropical islands
• Savanna (grasslands)
• Warm, seasonal rain, isolated shrubs and trees
  (picture the setting of The Lion King)
• Found in East Africa, Southern Brazil, Northern
  Australia
• Desert
• Low/no rain, variable temperatures, soils have
  lots of minerals but no nutrients (therefore,
  rare plant growth)
• Found in Africa, Middle East, U.S., Mexico, South
  America, Australia
• Tiaga
• Long,/cold winters, mild summers, moderate rain,
  high humidity
• Found in North America (Canada and Alaska), Asia,
  northern Europe

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Ecology

• Biomes (continued)
• Grassland
• Warm/hot summers, lush grasses (fire and cold
  resistant)
• Found in central Asia, North America, Australia,
  Europe
• Chaparral
• Hot/dry summers, wet winters, thin soils,
  evergreen shrubs and trees
• Western coasts of N. America and S. America,
  areas around the Mediterranean Sea, South Africa,
  Australia
• Temperate Forest (Alpine)
• Cold to moderate winters, warm summers, year
  round rain, fertile soils
• Coniferous trees (produce cones), shrubs,
  deciduous trees
• Found in Eastern U.S., SE Canada, most of Europe,
  Japan, China, Australia
• Northwestern Coniferous Forest
• Mild temps, lots of rain during
  fall/winter/spring, cool/dry summer
• Found in NW U.S., SW Canada (basically all along
  the coast of Northern California to Alaska)
• Tundra
• Permafrost (permanently frozen), strong winds,
  low rain
• North America (northern Canada, Alaska), Asia,
  and Europe (towards North Pole)

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Classification

• Taxonomy process of classifying organisms into
  similar categories (based on structure and
  function)
• 7 levels of classification (largest to smallest)
• Kingdom-
• 6 kingdoms (Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista,
  Fungi, Plantae, Animalia)
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species- 2 species that can interbreed and
  reproduce
• Scientific name is the genus and the species name
  put together. Example Canis lupus (common name
  is wolf)

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Evolution

• Natural Selection
• survival of the fittest
• Those organisms who are better adapted to live in
  their environments will survive, others less
  adapted will die off
• Mutations
• Change in the sequence of DNA, creates variation
  in gene pool
• Variation
• Differences among a population due to mutations
  and other members coming in from surrounding
  areas
• Gene Shuffling
• Genes shuffle around during the process of gamete
  formation, changes the combinations possible
  during reproduction
• Immigration
• New members of population move into area from
  outside areas brings in new genes
• Emigration
• Members of population leave to go to a different
  area takes genes to a new area

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Bacteria and Viruses

• Eukaryotes
• Single celled organisms
• Autotrophs (can make their own food) OR
  Heterotrophs (cannot make their own food)
• Bacteria belong to kingdom Monera
• Viruses do not belong to a kingdom because they
  do not share enough characteristics with anyone
• Single celled organisms
• Bacteria can be killed with antibiotics
• No treatment/cures for viruses
• Examples
• Bacteria colds, sinus infections, Chlamydia
• Viruses HIV/AIDS, herpes, flu

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Protists

• Kingdom Protista
• Eukaryote
• Can be single celled or multicellular
• Groups
• Animal like animal characteristics
• Zooflagellates have flagella, live in lakes and
  streams
• Sarcodines amoeba, move by pseudopods, found
  all over the Earth
• Ciliates paramecium, move by cilia, found in
  salt/fresh water
• Sporozoans cause diseases (malaria), found in
  animals as parasites
• Plant like - plant characteristics
• Euglenophytes euglena, flagella, found in water
• Dinoflagellates red tide
• Chrysophytes green and golden algae
• Diatoms glass cases, used in toothpaste/road
  paint
• Algae
• Red algae deep in ocean
• Brown algae (kelp) - oceans
• Green algae water and moist lands
• Fungus like fungi characteristics

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Fungi

• Eukaryotes
• Heterotrophs (cannot make their own food)
• Have cell walls of chitin
• Types
• Molds (cheese, bread)
• Sac fungi
• Club fungi (what we know as mushrooms)
• Imperfect fungi (no known reproductive cycle)

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Plants

• members of Kingdom Plantae
• multicellular eukaryotes
• cells walls made of cellulose
• develop from multicellular embryos
• carry out photosynthesis using green pigments
  chlorophyll a and b

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Plants

• 4 groups of plants classified by water-conducting
  tissues, seeds, flowers, and DNA
• Bryophytes- no vascular tissue!
• mosses and relatives
• Seedless Vascular Plants
• Club mosses, horsetails, ferns
• Gymnosperms
• Cycads, Ginkoes, Conifers (produce cones)
• Angiosperms
• Flowers
• Monocots - one seed leaf (cotyledon) in embryo
  (examples are corn, wheat, lilies, orchids)
• Dicots - two seed leaves (examples are roses,
  tomatoes, oaks)

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Plants

• Life Cycles
• Annuals planted yearly, complete life cycle in
  one year
• Biennials plant every other year, complete life
  cycle in two years
• Perennials plant once, long life cycle over
  many years

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Invertebrates

• No backbone
• Phylums
• Porifera (Sponges)
• Cnidaria (jelly fish, sea anemones)
• Platyhelminthes (flatworms planaria)
• Nematoda (roundworms parasites that cause
  disease)
• Annelida (segmented worms earthworms)
• Mollusca (squid, snail, slugs)
• Arthropods (crabs, lobster, spiders, insects)
• Echinoderms (starfish)

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Vertebrates- have backbone

• Belong to Phylum Chordata
• Nerve cord
• Gills slits at some point in life
• Tail that extends beyond anus at some point in
  life
• Notochord- precursor to a backbone
• Classes
• Agnatha- jawless fish
• Chondrichthyes- sharks, stingrays
• Osteichthyes- bony fish
• Amphibia- frog, toad, salamander
• Reptilia- turtle, snake, lizard, alligator, croc
• Aves- birds
• Mammals (Human, Bear)

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Human Body

• Humans are most complex organisms
• Body systems
• Nervous (brain controls body)
• Skeletal (bones movement)
• Muscular (muscles movement)
• Integumentary (skin protection)
• Circulatory (heart move materials around body)
• Respiratory (lungs air movement)
• Digestive (stomach, etc. digestion of food)
• Excretory (kidneys remove waste from body)
• Endocrine (glands regulate hormones)
• Reproductive (testes/ovaries reproduction)
• Immune (many organs protect against disease)