Santilli

1
Santillis New Fuels as Sources of Clean
Combustion

• I. B. Das Sarma
• Jhulelal Institute of Technology
• Off. Koradi Octroi Post
• Lonara, Nagpur-441 111
• INDIA
• E-mail dassarmaindrani_at_rediffmail.com

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Acknowledgment

• The financial support for this work from The R.
  M. Santilli Foundation, Palm Harbor, Florida is
  gratefully acknowledged.
• The author is grateful to Prof. A.A. Bhalekar
  Dr. V.M. Tangde for conducting One day
  motivational workshop on Santillis New
  Mathematics at Smt. Bhagwati Chaturvedi College
  of Engineering, Nagpur, INDIA.
• Author is also grateful for the constant
  encouragement and valuable guidance in preparing
  this paper and presentation by-
• Professor R. M. Santilli
• Professor C. Corda
• Professor R. Anderson
• Professor A. A. Bhalekar
• Dr. V. M. Tangde

3
Contents

• Introduction
• Modern Scenario of energy
• Hadronic Energy of Non-nuclear Type
• Hadronic Energy of Nuclear Type
• Conclusion

4
Insufficiencies of Quantum Mechanics

• It is based on Galilei and Poincaré symmetries,
  which are applicable only for Keplerian systems,
  requiring a nucleus.
• So, according to Prof. Santilli, Quantum
  mechanics cannot be exactly valid for nuclear
  structures because nuclei do not have their own
  nucleus to revolve around, as a consequence of
  which the basic Galilean and Poincaré symmetries
  must be broken, thus causing incontrovertible
  deviations from quantum axioms.

5

• Hamiltonian nature of quantum mechanics restricts
  the understanding of nuclear forces. Hence, to
  represent the a nuclear force with a potential up
  to 35 different potentials have been added
  without achieving the required exact
  representation.
• The linear, local and Hamiltonian character of
  quantum mechanics is effective for the
  classification of hadrons under their point-like
  approximation, but is inadequate for structure
  related problems due to expected nonlinear,
  nonlocal and non-Hamiltonian effects occurring
  within the hyper dense media inside hadrons.

6

• Thus, Prof. Santilli states
• According to the standard model, at the time of
  the neutron synthesis from protons and electrons
  inside a star, the permanently stable protons and
  electrons simply disappear from the universe to
  be replaced by conjectural quarks, and then the
  proton and the electron simply reappear at the
  time of the neutron decay. These beliefs are
  simply repugnant to me because excessively
  irrational, thus showing the conduction of
  particle physics via academic authority, rather
  than scientific veritas.

7

• The theory fails to explain the following even
  for the simplest nucleus of deuterium
• The spin 1 of deuterium since quantum axioms
  require that the single stable bound state of two
  particles with spin ½, (proton and neutron) must
  be the singlet state with spin zero.
• To represent the magnetic moment of deuterium.
• The stability of unstable neutron when coupled to
  proton in a nucleus (e.g. deuterium).
• T½ of neutron ?15 minutes.

8

• Quantum Mechanics is inapplicable for explaining
  the synthesis of neutron from a proton and an
  electron as occurring in stars because, in this
  case the Schrödinger equation becomes
  inconsistent.
• It is unsuitable for all processes that are
  irreversible over time, like nuclear fusions,
  because quantum mechanics is reversible over
  time, thus admitting the time reversal event
  which violates energy conservation, causality and
  other basic laws.
• It also fails to explain irreversible non-nuclear
  process like combustion.

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Insufficiencies of Quantum Chemistry

• It cannot predict quantitatively how two
  identical electrons attract each other to form a
  bond (as in a molecule).
• It cannot be exactly valid for the study of
  chemical reactions.
• E.g. In case of the strictly irreversible
  reaction
• H2O ? H2O
• Quantum chemistry admits finite probability for
  the time reversal event, i.e. the spontaneous
  disintegration of the water molecule into its
  original constituents,
• H2O ? H2 O
• However, this concept violates the principle of
  conservation of the energy.

10

• Exact representation of molecular binding
  energies could be provided only by screening of
  the Coulomb potential (i.e. multiplication of
  fundamental Coulomb potential between two valence
  electrons, V e2/r, by an arbitrary function
  f(r) of completely unknown origin).
• f(r) was obtained from experimental data and
  screened Coulomb potentials accurately
  represented binding energies.

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However

• The conversion of Coulomb potential to its
  screened form requires a non-unitary transform.
• So, the screening of Coulomb potential causes
  major departures from the unitary structure of
  quantum mechanics.
• The Coulomb potential is a fundamental invariant
  of quantum mechanics. Consequently, its screening
  causes the breaking of the fundamental Galilei
  symmetry under which conditions quantum mechanics
  cannot be accurate.
• It is well known that the quantum of energy is
  solely possible for the Coulomb law and that any
  quantization of the energy is impossible for
  screened potentials.

12
Need for Hadronic Mechanics

• Quantitative treatment of neutron synthesis from
  protons and electrons (occurring in stars).
• Quantitative studies on the possible utilization
  of the inextinguishable energy contained inside
  the neutron.
• The study of new clean energies and fuels that
  cannot even be conceived with the 20th century
  doctrines and other basic advances.

13

• Quantum mechanics was conceived for the study of
  interactions among particles at large mutual
  distances which is representable with
  differential equations defined over a finite set
  of isolated points.
• Hadronic mechanics was formulated for the study
  of the additional nonlocal-integral interactions
  due to mutual wave overlapping. The interactions
  are defined over an entire volume and cannot be
  effectively approximated by their abstraction
  into finite number of isolated points.
• The same interaction cannot be derived from a
  Hamiltonian or non-linear in their wave functions
  or their derivatives1.

1. Elements of Hadronic Mechanics, Vol. I,
Mathematical Foundation, R.M. Santilli, 2nd
Edition, 1995, Naukova Dumka Publishers, Kiev.
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Hadronic Mechanics
Macroscopic bodies in motion
Valid at atomic level of distances structure
Valid for inter-particle distance within 1 fm
gt10-3 cm
gt10-13 10 8 cm
10-13 cm
Newtonian Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics
Hadronic Mechanics
Prof. Santilli has founded more fundamental
theory of the universe, named after the composite
nuclear particle hadron as Hadronic Mechanics.
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New Mathematics

• Prof. Santilli states that There cannot be a
  really new theory without a really new
  mathematics, and there cannot be a really new
  mathematics without new numbers.
• He formulated various new mathematics that
  coincides at the abstract realization-free level
  with traditional mathematics, discovering new
  realizations of pre-existing abstract
  mathematical axioms, with consequential far
  reaching mathematical and physical implications.

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Isomathematics

• It is developed for quantitative invariant
  treatment of non-local, non-potential and
  non-linear interactions among extended particles
  under mutual penetration at short distance is
  today known under the name of Isomathematics.
• Iso denotes the preservation of conventional
  axioms2.

• 2. Iso-, Geno-, Hyper-mechanics for Matter, their
  Isoduals, for Antimatter, and their Novel
  Applications in Physics, Chemistry and Biology,
  R.M. Santilli, Extended version of invited
  plenary talks at the Conference of the
  International Association for Relativistic
  Dynamics, Washington, D.C., June 2002
  International Congress of Mathematicians, Hong
  Kong, August 2002 International Conference on
  Physical Interpretation of Relativity Theories,
  London, September 2002.

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• Isomathematics was initially proposed by Prof. R.
  M. Santilli3 in 1978 and subsequently studied by
  several mathematicians, theoreticians and
  experimentalists4-7 .
• Valence bonds include conventional local
  differential Coulomb interactions, as well as
  nonlocal, nonlinear and nonpotential interactions
  due to wave overlappings.
• The former interactions can be represented with
  the conventional Hamiltonian, but the latter
  interactions can be represented via a
  generalization of the basic unit as a condition
  to achieve invariance (since the unit is the
  basic invariant of any theory).

3. R. M. Santilli Hadronic J. 1, 224
(1978). 4. J. L. Lagrange, Mechanique Analytique
(1788), reprinted by Gauthier-Villars, Paris
(1888). 5. S. Lie, Over en Classe Geometriske
Transformationer, English translation by E.
Trell, Algebras Groups and Geometries 15, 395
(1998). 6. R. M. Santilli, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento
6, 1225 (l968). 7. R. M. Santilli, Hadronic J.
3, 440 (l979).
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• Isomathematics preserves all the axioms of 20th
  century Lie-algebra but introduces the
  non-unitary multiplication unit (a scalar or
  tensorial quantity).
• Thus, all the ordinary units can be istopically
  lifted (converted to its isotopic equivalent) by
  multiplying it with an isounit, Î.
• Thus, divergent parameters can be made convergent
  i.e. achieving the broadening of
  unitary-canonical theories into non-unitary,
  non-canonical extensions
• Isounit does not have an unit value as in
  ordinary mathematics but may have any positive
  value.
• I 1?Î
• The positive definiteness of iso-unit, Î is given
  by
• where

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Genomathematics

• The irreversibility of the macroscopic reality
  cannot be quantified by isomathematics is that
  because the Lie-Santilli isotheory is
  structurally reversible (theory coincides with
  its time reversal image for reversible
  Hamiltonians and isounits).
• The resolution of this insufficiency required
  suitable broadening of the Lie-Santilli
  isotheory. In turn, the achievement of an
  invariant formulation of the latter theory
  required the construction of a new mathematics
  that Professor Santilli formulated8 way back in
  1978 under the name of genomathematics
• The term genotopy means inducing configuration
  alternately can be understood as axiom inducing.
• Alteration of the original axioms in favour of
  covering axioms admitting the original one as
  particular case.

8. R. M. Santilli, On a possible Lie-admissible
covering of the Galilei relativity in Newtonian
mechanics for non-conservative and Galilei
form-noninvariant systems, Hadronic J., vol. 1,
pp. 223 -423, 1978
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• The main idea of genomathematics is the selection
  of two different generalized units called
  genounits, the first Îgt for the ordered
  multiplication to the right A gt B, called forward
  genoproduct, and the second ltÎ for the ordered
  multiplicationto the left A lt B, called backward
  genoproduct, according to the general rules.
• The point at the foundations of the
  Lie-admissible theory is that the multiplications
  of the same numbers in different orderings are
  generally different, a gt ß ? ß lt a
• So, this indicates possibility of introducing two
  orderd iso units called geno units1

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• The 1st expression permits dual generaliztion
  one for ordering to the right yielding right
  genofield having elements are called right
  genonumber.
• The one for ordering to the left yielding left
  genofield having elements are called
  left genonumber
• The two genofields can be denoted with the
  unified symbol with the understanding
  that the orderings can be used only individually1

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Hypermathematics

• Genonumbers were extended to yet new numbers
  today known as Santilli's hyperreal, hypercomplex
  and hyperquaternionic numbers to the right and to
  the left, or generically as hypernumbers that are
  multivalued, namely, not only the units and
  products to the right and to the left are
  different, but the hyperunit has an ordered set
  of values and, consequently, the multiplication
  yields an ordered set of results.
• E.g. the hyper-lifting of
• results in
• Santilli's hypernumbers are different than
  hyperstructures because the former use
  conventional operations while the latter use
  abstract operations.
• Santilli's hypernumbers verify all axioms of a
  field, while conventional hyperstructures do not
  generally admit any unit at all, thus not being
  generally formulated over a field, with
  consequential severe restrictions in
  applications.

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• Genotheories are insufficient to represent the
  entire nature as they are unable to represent
  biological structures such as a cell or a
  seashell. The latter systems are indeed
  open-nonconservative-irreversible, yet they
  possess a structure dramatically more complex
  than that of a nonconservative Newtonian system.
  A study of the issue has revealed that the
  limitation of genotheories is due to their
  single-valued character.

• As an illustration, mathematical treatments
  complemented with computer visualization have
  established that the shape of sea shells can be
  well described via the conventional single-valued
  three-dimensional Euclidean space and geometry
  according to the empirical perception of our
  three Eustachian tubes.

A computer visualization of seashells studied by
Illert that varies the isoeuclidean
representation of seashell's growth while the
conventional Euclidean representation does not.
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• Hyper-mathematics is characterized by the
  following hyperunits expressed for the lifting of
  the Euclidean unit
• Mathematics is not 3m-dimensional, but rather it
  is 3-dimensional and m-multi-valued. Such a
  feature permits the increase of the reference
  axes, e.g., for m 2 we have the six axes, while
  achieving compatibility with our sensory
  perception because at the abstract,
  realization-free level.
• The hypermathematics characterized by hyperunit
  is indeed 3-dimensional.

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Modern Scenario of Energy

• Energy requirements is being mostly fulfilled by
  the conventional source of energy i.e. molecular
  combustion of fossil fuels, hydrogen or nuclear
  fission.
• Fossil fuel combustion generates large amount of
  green house gases like CO2, hydrocarbons, etc.
• Hydrogen combustion depletes atmospheric O2 by
  forming H2O.
• Nuclear fission generates large amount of nuclear
  waste risking ecosystem and life.

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• Clean energy is obtained by harnessing renewable
  energy sources like solar, wind, geothermal,
  tidal, etc.
• They are generally dependent on geographical
  locations.
• Also the power generated cannot be stored
  efficiently due to lack of efficient battery
  technology.
• The modern day demand is that of clean energy
  source, which is cheap and abundant.
• The fuels developed should be such that can be
  used in existing engines without any or major
  modifications.
• This requirement is fulfilled by changing the
  approach from quantum mechanics to hadronic
  mechanics to hadronic chemistry.

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Non-nuclear Type Hadronic Fuel (Magnecular
Combustion)
32
Hydrogen

• Two H-atoms placed adjacent to each other without
  overlap of electron wave packets. They show
  conventional spherical charge distribution around
  their respective nucleus.
• Isochemical model of H2 molecule with a stable
  iso-electronium at absolute zero revolving in the
  oo-shaped orbital

33
The new interactions at the foundations of
hadronic mechanics originating from mutual
contact and penetration of the wavepackets of
particles at short distances that are
non-Hamiltonian because non-linear, non-local and
non-potential, thus requiring a non-unitary
lifting of quantum mechanics, including its
mathematics, physical laws and experimental
verifications9.
9. I. Gandzha and J. Kadeisvily New Sciences For
A New Era Mathematical, Physical and Chemical
Discoveries of Ruggero Maria Santilli Sankata
Printing Press, Kathmandu, Nepal, (2011).
34
It consists in the use of sufficiently strong
external magnetic fields which can progressively
eliminate all rotations, thus reducing the
hydrogen molecule to a configuration which, at
absolute zero degrees temperature, can be assumed
to lie in a plane. The planar configuration of
the electron orbits then implies the
manifestation of their magnetic moment which
would be otherwise absent. The R.H.S of the above
picture outlines the geometry of the magnetic
field in the immediate vicinity of an electric
arc as described in the text for the case of
hadronic molecular reactors. the circular
configuration of the magnetic field lines around
the electric discharge, the tangential nature of
the symmetry axis of the magnetic polarization of
the hydrogen atoms with respect to said circular
magnetic lines, and the consideration of hydrogen
atoms at orbital distances from the electric arc
10-8 cm, resulting in extremely strong magnetic
fields proportional to (10-8)-2 1016 Gauss,
thus being ample sufficient to create the needed
polarization. The reason for these results is the
intrinsic geometry of the PlasmaArcFlow
A schematic view of the main mechanism underlying
the creation of magnecules, here illustrated for
the case of the hydrogen molecule.
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• It consists in the use of sufficiently strong
  external magnetic fields which can progressively
  eliminate all rotations, thus reducing the
  hydrogen molecule to a configuration which, at
  absolute zero degrees temperature, can be assumed
  to lie in a plane.
• The planar configuration of the electron orbits
  then implies the manifestation of their magnetic
  moment which would be otherwise absent.
• The r.h.s. of the above picture outlines the
  geometry of the magnetic field in the immediate
  vicinity of an electric arc as in hadronic
  molecular reactors.
• The circular configuration of the magnetic field
  lines around the electric discharge, the
  tangential nature of the symmetry axis of the
  magnetic polarization of the hydrogen atoms with
  respect to said circular magnetic lines, and the
  consideration of hydrogen atoms at orbital
  distances from the electric arc 10-8 cm,
  resulting in extremely strong magnetic fields
  proportional to (10-8)-2 1016 Gauss, thus being
  ample sufficient to create the needed
  polarization.
• The reason for these results is the intrinsic
  geometry of the PlasmaArcFlowTM

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Santilli Magnecules

• The search for a new bond between stable clusters
  of same atoms/molecules composing fossil fuels
  under the following
• CONDITION 1 The new bond should be weaker than
  the valence bond as a necessary condition to
  decrease pollutants
• CONDITION 2 The new weaker bond should allow the
  formation of clusters that are stable at
  industrially used storage values of temperature
  and pressure,
• e.g., those for methane and
• CONDITION 3 The new, weaker and stable bond
  should decompose itself at the combustion
  temperature to optimize the energy released by
  the combustion.
• These conditions could be fulfilled by a novel
  chemical species called Santilli Magnecules or
  Magnecules.

37

• An isolated conventional spherical configuration
  of H-atom at absolute zero degree temperature
  shows forces due to-
• electric charge of electron
• electric charge of proton
• intrinsic magnetic moment of electron
• intrinsic magnetic moment of proton.
• The same H-atom when its peripheral electron
  orbit is polarized into a plane, a fifth field10
  due to the magnetic dipole moment caused by the
  rotation of the electron in its planar orbit
  emerges.

10. The new fuels with magnecular structure,
Ruggero Maria Santilli, International Academic
Press, 2005
38

• Magnecules, thus are novel chemical species
  having at least one magnecular bond other than
  usual covalent bond.
• denotes covalent bond and denotes
  magnecular bond
• The atoms are held together by magnetic fields
  originating due to toroidal polarization of the
  atomic electron orbits.
• The rotation of the electrons within the toroid
  creates the magnetic field which is absent for
  the same atom with conventional spherical
  distribution of electron orbitals.

The oo-shaped orbital of isoelectronium, under an
external strong magnetic field gets polarized.
The two H atoms acquire parallel but opposite
magnetic polarities with null value at sufficient
distance. The toroidal distribution of the
isoelectronium orbital due to the isouncertainty
principle of hadronic mechanics.

39

• When two such polarized atoms are sufficiently
  close to each other and in north-south-north-south
  alignment, the resulting total force between the
  two atoms is attractive.
• This polarization requires high magnetic field.
• At atomic distances from electric arcs of 1000 A
  of current, the magnetic field is of the order of
  1011 Gauss, which is sufficient to polarize
  atomic orbitals into toroids for magnecular
  coupling.

Conceptual diagram of an elementary magnecule
comprising two identical atoms whose bond is
entirely of magnecular character, originating
from opposing polarities North-South-North-South
of the toroidal distributions of orbitals, as
well as the polarization of nuclear and electron
magnetic moments.
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Classification of magnecules

• Isomagnecules
• All single-valued characteristics
• Reversible in time, when characterized by
  isochemistry
• Genomagnecules
• All single-valued characteristics
• Irreversible in time, when characterized by
  genochemistry
• Hypermagnecules
• At least one multi-valued characteristic
• Irreversible in time, when characterized by
  hyperchemistry

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Structural classification of magnecules

• Elementary
• Composed only of two molecules,
• e.g. H H H H H O H H O
  H and so on
• Magneplexes
• Entirely composed of several identical molecules
• e.g. H O H H O H H O H
  H O H H O H and so on
• Magneclusters
• Composed of several different molecules
• e.g. H H C O O C O C O
  H H and so on

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Characteristics of magnecules

• Large atomic weights which are ten times or more
  than the conventional molecules.
• Large peaks in macroscopic percentages in mass
  spectra, which do not belong to conventional
  molecules.
• These peaks show same infra-red and ultra-violet
  signature as expected from the conventional
  molecules and/or dimers constituting the
  magnecule.
• Said infrared and ultraviolet signatures are
  generally altered with respect to the
  conventional versions.
• Magnecules have an anomalous adhesion to other
  substances.

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• Breaks down into fragments under high energetic
  collisions, with subsequent recombination with
  other fragments and/or conventional molecules.
• They can build up or lose individual atoms,
  molecules during collision.
• They have an anomalous penetration through other
  substances indicating a reduction of the average
  size of conventional molecules as expected under
  magnetic polarizations.
• Gas magnecules show an anomalous solubility in
  liquids due to new magnetic bonds between gas and
  liquid molecules caused by magnetic induction.
• Magnecules can be formed by molecules of
  immiscible liquids.

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• A gas with magnecular structure does not follow
  the ideal gas law.
• Substances with magnecular structure have
  anomalous physical characteristics, as compared
  to the conventional molecules.
• Magnecules release more energy in thermochemical
  reactions than that released by the same
  reactions among unpolarized molecular
  constituents.
• All the above characteristic features disappear
  when the magnecules are brought to a sufficiently
  high temperature (Curie Magnecular Temperature),
  which varies from species to species.

46
MagneGas

• Principle of synthesis of magnecules is similar
  to the magnetization of a ferromagnet where the
  orbits of unbounded electrons are polarized.
• Thus, theoretically any matter whether solid,
  liquid or gas can be converted to magnecules
  provided it is subjected to sufficiently strong
  external magnetic field.
• So, molecular H2 and O2 gases can be turned into
  their respective magnecular structure called
  MagneHydrogenTM (MH) and MagneOxygenTM (MO) by
  subjecting them to strong external magnetic
  field.
• This field is obtained in a Hadronic reactor.

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Hadronic Refinery
Santilli hadronic refineries for converting
liquid waste into a clean burning, cost
competitive gaseous fuel with magnecular
structure. The pressure metal vessel the
submerged electrodes the recirculation of the
feedstock through the arc the external AC-DC
converter the external automatic controls of the
arc and the collection of the produced
magnecular fuel.
48

• Six characteristic temperature ranges and
  associated regions11

Underwater arc (30 to 40V DC, 500 to 1000A) T gt1500 oC Dissociation of H2O (110 kcal/mol), association of CO (255 kcal/mol) and CO2 molecules
Region close to arc 800 oC to1500 oC Association of H2 (104kcal/mol) and H2O
Region close to arc 700 oC to 800 oC Very small bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, and H2O gases
Region close to arc 150 oC to 700 oC Very small bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, and H2O gases
Region close to arc 100 oC to 150 oC Association of O2 molecules and complexes (30 kcal/mol), small and big bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, O2, and H2O gases
Region far from the arc 70 oC to 100 oC Association of complexes (30 kcal/mol), water condensation, big bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, and O2 gases leaving the liquid

• Structure and Combustion of MagnegasesTM, R. M.
  Santilli and A. K. Aringazin,
  
• arXivphysics/0112066v1 physics.gen-ph
  20 Dec 2001

49
Efficiency of Hadronic Reactor

• The efficiency of Hadronic reactor is expressed
  in two ways namely Scientific Efficiency and
  Commercial Efficiency .
• Scientific Efficiency is always less than 1 as
  per the Carnot theorem.
• However, the Hadronic reactors do not produce
  energy sufficient for the entire regeneration of
  the used electric energy for various reasons,
  such as dispersion, very low efficiency of
  current electric generators, etc.

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• Regardless of this limitation, the production of
  MagneGas (MH) in an electric power plant (to whom
  the cost of electricity is zilch) is very
  advantageous from an energy viewpoint because-
• For every kW of used energy, they produce at
  least the equivalent of 3 kW of thermal energy in
  MagneGas (MH).
• When MH is used as an additive to coal or
  petroleum combustion, the H-content of MagneGas
  can burn at least half of the combustible
  components in the plant exhaust that constitute
  environmental problems.
• There are additional savings (of the order of
  several millions of dollars per year) in
  scrubbing and other means to clean the exhaust.

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• Thus, Magnegas Corporation has documented
  evidence that an electric power plant, by
  producing MagneGas locally and injecting it into
  the flame of the used fossil fuel, can increase
  the production of electricity by at least 30
  with the same use of fossil fuel.
• The credibility of this statement is evident and
  due to the fact that about 60 of the energy of
  fossil fuels is wasted due to formation of
  combustible CO, hydrocarbons and other
  contaminants in flue gas.
• These combustible exhausts are burnt off when
  combined with the H2 in MagneGas.
• Hence the indicated 30 gain in the production of
  electricity from a given fossil fuel.
• MH in fossil fuel decreases its volatility
  probably due to their anomalous adsorption,
  consequently attaining higher temperature which
  results in a cleaner combustion. Thus the
  consideration of commercial efficiency becomes
  evident for all practical purposes.

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Detection of Magnecules

• Appearance of unexpected heavy MS peaks.
• Unknown character of the unexpected MS heavy
  peaks.
• Lack of IR signature of the unknown MS peaks.
• Changes in IR signatures.
• Changes in magnecular weights.
• Accumulation or emission of individual atoms or
  molecules.
• Anomalous adhesion

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MagneHydrogen

• H2 is diamagnetic and cannot acquire a total net
  magnetic polarity.
• The orbit of each H atom acquires a toroidal
  polarization under sufficiently strong external
  magnetic field.
• The opposite magnetic moments of the two H atoms
  explain the diamagnetic character of the hydrogen
  molecule.
• Intrinsic magnetic moments of nuclei and
  electrons of H2 molecule are also polarized.
• Creating new chemical species having bigger
  specific weight due to formation of new bonds
  between pairs of individual H atoms.

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MagneOxygen

• It is formed comparatively easily as oxygen is
  paramagnetic.
• So electrons acquire an overall magnetic
  polarity.
• Significant increase of the specific weight of
  the oxygen requires the toroidal polarization of
  at least some of the peripheral atomic electrons,
  along with total magnetic polarization

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Magnecular Water (HHO)

• HHO gas is magnecular water having
• magneclusters like H H O or H H ? O
• magneplexes like H O H ? H O H
• Prior to Santilli's studies, a gaseous mixture of
  2/3 ordinary hydrogen and 1/3 ordinary oxygen
  gases was known under the name of Brown gas.
• Both HHO and Brown gas does not require
  atmospheric oxygen for combustion. Thus, does
  not deplete of atmospheric oxygen.
• However they differ in the fact that the former
  has anomalous adsorption property and varying
  thermal content.

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Magnecular Combustion

• Magnecular combustion results in high energy
  output due to weak magnecular bond and stored
  magnetostatic energy.
• This is exploited for the industrial development
  of novel clean fuels such as magnegas.
• Combustion of molecular hydrogen and oxygen
• H H ½ O2 ? H2O.
• The homolytic clevage of H2 and O2 molecules for
  production of free radicals require 163.7
  kcal/mol
• The atom recombination to produce H2O releases
  221.25 kcal/mol
• So, the net energy release is 57 kcal/mol.

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• Combustion of magnecular hydrogen
• H H O ? H2O
• Considering H H bond dissociation energy to be
  zero
• The energy output is predicted to be
  approximately three times the value predicted by
  molecular structures with the same atomic
  constituents and combustion temperature.

58

• Combustion of magnecules
• Magnecule nO2 ? mH2O kO2 lCO2 ... ?
  kcal
• n, m, k, l, ... are integers
• Magnecule is assumed to consist of both H2 and
  CO.
• This give increased energy released per each H2
  molecule.
• Energy balance for combustion of magnecule
• Ecombustion mEH2OkEO2lECO2...-Emagne
  cule
• EH2O, EO2, ECO2, ... are ground state
  energies of the molecular constituents
• Emagnecule is ground state energy of the
  original magnecule.

59

• Energy balance is calculated using dissociation
  energy of the magnecule, Dmagnecule.
• However, Dmagnecule is different for magnecules
  of different mass and composition.
• In case of chemical reactions, reaction constant
  K is considered.
• E.g
• H2 ½ O2 ? H2O(?H -57.5 kcal, K 1040 at T
  25 oC)
• i.e. total combustion of H2 gas at T 25 oC.
• Generally, for all highly exothermic reactions
  (?H lt -15 kcal/mol), the reaction constant is of
  high value.
• The opposite direction of the reaction, H2 ½ O2
  ? H2O is realized only at very high temperatures,
  at which K lt 1.
• K 1 indicates equilibrium, while K lt 1
  indicates backward reaction.

60
The relation between the reaction heat, ?H and
the reaction constant, K is - 2.303RT logK
?G where, ?G ?H - T?S R 1.986 calK-1
mol-1 T is temperature in Kelvin, ?S is
the entropy of the reaction. The ?S is
numerically big if the initial reagents have
molecular structures more ordered than the end
products, i.e. there is an increase of entropy S
during the reaction. The above outline on the
reaction constant and reaction entropy helps us
to conclude that the combustion of magnegas is
characterized by a very high value of the
reaction constant (perhaps even bigger than K
1040 at T 25 oC).
61
Factors favoring Magnecular Combustion

• Combustion of magnegas is a highly exothermic
  reaction as-
• They have a structure more ordered than the
  combustion products.
• So, during the combustion there is large increase
  of the entropy ?S gt 0, eventually very high
  value of the reaction constant K.
• However, ?G is a function of temperature.
• For most elements, ?G of oxidation reactions
  increases linearly with the temperature.
• So, resulting oxides are less stable at high
  temperatures than at low temperatures
• e.g. H2O dissociating at high temperature (1000
  oC)

62
However, during oxidation of carbon to carbon
monoxide C CO2 ? 2CO ?G decreases with the
increase of the temperature. The number of moles
increases about twice during the reaction.
Hence, the entropy increases, ?S gt 0.
Therefore, the CO molecule is more stable at
high temperatures than at low temperatures
consequently, a better quality of the exhaust is
obtained at lower original temperatures of
magnegas.
63

• High reaction rate
• Combustion of magnecules is faster than the
  combustion of their molecular constituents.
• According to Santilli-Shillady isochemical models
  of molecular structures H2 and O2 molecules have
  the usual (spherical) shape due to rotations in
  their natural conventional and non-polarized
  states.
• However, the isochemical model of the water shows
  that such configurations are not suited for the
  reaction of H and O into H2O. In particular, the
  orbitals of H2 and O2require a toroidal
  configuration as a condition for their bonding.
• Thus, magnetically polarized molecules of
  hydrogen and oxygen have a bigger reaction rate
  than the same molecules in un-polarized
  conditions, since they have a distribution of the
  valence electrons more suitable for the reaction
  itself.
• Evidently, a bigger reaction rate implies a
  bigger power.

64

• Combustion of a magnecule consisting of H2 and
  CO, does not require the necessary previous
  dissociation of the O2 molecule, because each
  O-atom in a magnetically polarized O2 molecule
  has necessary orientation required for
  combustion.
• So, the magnecular structure acts as a catalyst,
  in which both O-atoms of the O2 molecule start to
  react with the nearest pair H2?H2, or H2?CO, or
  CO?CO almost simultaneously.
• This also implies that less amount of external
  energy is needed to activate the reaction,
  resulting, in an anomalous energy release in
  combustion. (activation energy is supplied by
  heat)
• So, the combustion of magnegas can be initiated
  at smaller temperature, in comparison to that of
  the simple mixture of H2 and CO gases.

65
Applications of HHO Fuel additive

• The anomalous adsorption makes it a perfect
  additive to other fuels.
• The flash point of diesel was found to increase
  from 75C to 79C on purging with HHO.
• Anomalous rise of just 4C or 42C?
• This could be attributed to the magnecular
  structure of the HHO which influences to form
  magnecluster HHO and diesel molecules, thereby
  drastically increasing its flash point.
• If HHO existed as normal molecular gas then the
  flash point would have decreased by half.
• The adsorption of the HHO to the diesel molecules
  is also expected to significantly reduce the
  harmful emission of the original fuel (due to
  inherent O content) and increases the thermal
  output of the fuel in case of combustion.

66
Applications of HHO Thermal Output

• HHO exhibits a wide range of thermal output.
• In open air flame temperature is 150C to large
  releases of thermal energy depending on the
  substance to which the flame is applied like
  instantaneous melting of W or bricks requiring
  9000C.
• This anomaly is due to presence of polarized
  H-atom in the HHO gas.
• Instantaneous melting of bricks9 is only possible
  due to the polarized hydrogen contained in the
  HHO gas which rapidly penetrates into the deep
  layers of the brick.
• Smaller sectional area, increases penetration.
• Polarized H-atoms induces polarization of the
  bricks atomic orbitals, leading to attraction of
  the polarized H atoms. This leads to faster
  penetration within the solid lattice causing
  higher reactivity and consequently higher melting
  temperature.

67
Nuclear Type Hadronic Fuel (Magnecular
Combustion)
68
Basic nuclear processes

• Fission

Fusion
235U
1
2
Fission Product 1 A 90 to 100 Fission Product
2 A 133 to 143
69
Nuclear Fusion

• It has been considered the Holy Grail of energy
• Nuclear fusion can be broadly classified as
• Low energy nuclear fusion or cold fusion
• Reported by Fleishmann, Pons and Hawkins (1989)
• Major drawback Non-reproducibility by other
  laboratories.
• Reason Could be due to insufficient energy
  required to expose the atomic nuclei from within
  the covering atomic electron cloud.

70

• High energy nuclear fusion or hot fusion
• Reported by various laboratories
• Major drawback Not self sustaining and compound
  nucleus undergoes fission leading to formation
  radioactive wastes.
• Reason Atomic electron clouds are completely
  stripped off. Kinetic energy of the nuclei are
  increased to overcome coulombic barrier and the
  energy attained by the compound nucleus is
  generally higher than the fission barrier which
  results in fission reaction or nuclear decay as
  prominent exit channels.
• In view of this Santilli proposed new form of
  nuclear energy without ionizing radiations and
  radioactive waste predicted using hadronic
  mechanics. 

71
Hadronic Energy of Nuclear Type

• Nuclear energy conventionally obtained by fission
  reaction is hazardous due to generation of high
  energy ionizing radiation and radioactive waste.
• The shielding from these radiations is
  cumbersome as well as expensive.
• Disposal of the radioactive waste poses
  environmental risk.
• The fission reactions could be adequately
  explained by quantum mechanics by considering the
  fragments as point mass.
• However, the same theory fails to explain nuclear
  fusion because considering the reacting nuclei as
  point mass was not possible.
• Hence the use of hadronic mechanics to explain
  nuclear fusion is necessary.

72
Intermediate Controlled Nuclear Fusion (ICNF)

• Basic assumptions proposed by Prof. Santilli are-
• Nuclear force Nuclear force can be partly
  represented with a Hamiltonian and partly is of
  non-potential type and cannot be represented with
  a Hamiltonian.
• Stable nuclei According to Heisenberg-Santilli
  Lie-isotopic equations the sub-nuclear particles
  are in contact with each other without
  appreciable overlap of their wave-functions.

Figure used by Santilli to illustrate that nuclei
have no nuclei of their own and composed of
particles in contact with each other having
mutual penetration of about 10-3 of their charge
distributions. So, the nuclear force is expected
to be partially of potential and partially of
nonpotential type, with ensuing nonunitary
character of the theory, and related
applicability of hadronic mechanics.
73

• Unstable nuclei and nuclear fusion In case of
  Heisenberg-Santilli Lie-admissible equation
• Hermitean, H represents non-conserved total
  energy
• Genotopic elements R and S represents
  non-potential interactions
• So, irreversibility is assured.
• Lie-admissible branch of hadronic mechanics is
  ideally suited to represent the decay of unstable
  nuclei and nuclear fusions, since both are
  irreversible over time.
• Neutron synthesis Neutron is assumed (originally
  conjectured by Rutherford) to be compressed
  hydrogen atom.
• p a e- ? n
• where a is Santillis etherino (conventional
  Hilbert space)

74

• Don Borghis experiment and Santillis hadronic
  mechanics appropriately explains the Rutherfords
  conjecture on neutron as a compressed hydrogen
  atom.

An original drawing used by Santilli to
illustrate physical differences between the
hydrogen atom and the neutron synthesis from a
proton and an electron (occurring in stars).
75

• The main interactions absent in the hydrogen
  atom, but present in the neutron the nonlinear,
  nonlocal and nonpotential interactions due to
  deep wave overlapping of extended particles.
  Their non-Hamiltonian character mandates a
  nonunitary covering of quantum mechanics.

76
An illustration of the support by the industry of
research on new clean energies requiring suitable
coverings of 20th century doctrines, depicting
the conception by Michael McDonnough, President
of BetaVoltaic, Inc., of the Rutherford-Santilli
neutron that is at the foundation of its possible
stimulated decay and related new clean energies.
77

• Nuclear structure Proton is the only stable
  particle and neutron is unstable comprising of
  proton and electron. Santilli assumed that nuclei
  are a collection of protons and neutrons, in
  first approximation, while at a deeper level a
  collection of mutated protons and electrons.

78
Controlled Nuclear Fusion (CNF)

• It is systematic energy releasing nuclear fusion
  whose reaction rate is controllable via one or
  more mechanisms capable of performing the
  engineering optimization of the applicable laws.
• The CNF is governed by Santilli's laws for
  controlled nuclear fusions
• The orbitals of peripheral atomic electrons are
  controlled such that nuclei are systematically
  exposed.
• CNF occurs when nuclei spins are either in
  singlet planar coupling or triplet axial coupling.

A schematic view of the only two stable
couplings permitted by hadronic mechanics for
nuclear fusions the singlet planar coupling (A)
and the triplet axial coupling (B) . All other
spin configurations have been proved to produce
strongly repulsive forces under which no CNF is
possible.
79

• The most probable CNF are those occurring at
  threshold energies and without the release of
  massive particles.
• CNF requires trigger, an external mechanism that
  forces exposed nuclei to come in fm range.
• Magnecules have systematic and controlled
  exposure of nuclei which have singlet planar or
  triplet axial coupling.

• The ICNF proposed by Santilli are of the generic
  type
• where, A is the atomic number
• Z is the nuclear charge
• JP is the nuclear angular momentum
  with parity
• u is the nuclear energy in amu
  units
• TR is trigger mechanism (high voltage
  DC arc in hadronic reactor)

80

• Synthesis of nitrogen from carbon and deuterium
  by ICNF
• It was expected in nature due to lightning.
• C(12,6,O,12.0000)D(2,1,1,2.0141)TR?N(14,7
  ,1,14.0030)Heat
• ?E 0.0111 amu 10.339MeV
• Threshold energy is supplied which is just
  sufficient to expose the atomic nuclei from
  within the electron cloud.
• As the energy is not very high the resulting
  compound nucleus has excitation energy lesser
  than that required for particular or
  gamma-emission.
• The above reaction is carried out in sealed tanks
  called hadronic reactors.
• This synthesis is of industrial importance
  because it yields 1010 BTU of energy per hour.

81
A schematic view of the Hadronic Reactor, based
on an upgradation of the Hadronic Refineries
showing emphasis on the production and use of a
magnecular fuel in the latter, to the production
and use of heat in the former.
82

• The electric arc polarizes carbon and hydrogen
  atoms by forming the
• C H H magnecule, having triplet axial spin
  coupling.
• Under a suitable trigger, the magnecule C H H
  should yield a nucleus with A14, Z8, JP1
• However, that does not exist (since O(14, 8) has
  spin J 0).
• So, according to Prof. Santilli the nature
  synthesizes a neutron from proton, electron and
  etherino as,
• CHH?C(12, 6, 0) 2 x p e- a ?C(12, 6, 0)
  H(2, 1, 1) ? N(14, 8, 1)
• The fusion reaction taking place in hadronic
  reactor using deuterium as fuel have shown to
  yield clean energy without formation of any
  radioactive species or ionizing radiations.

83
Examples of ICNF

• O(18,8,0,17.9991) C(12,6,0,12.0000) TR ?
  Si(30,14,0,29.9737) ?E
• ? E 0.0254 u
• The reaction verifies all conservation laws.
• The whitish powder on the edge of carbon
  electrodes suggests synthesis of silica.
• The controlled fusion of oxygen and carbon into
  silica was done because CO2 (green house gas) is
  a hadronic fuel for the production of clean
  energy.
• Hadronic reactor can be filled up with CO2 at
  pressure. The DC arc efficiently separates it
  into O2 and C.
• O2 and C burns to produce CO that, in the
  presence of oxygen and an arc, reproduces CO2.
• Thus recovering the energy used for the
  separation of CO2.
• However, along with the conventional combustion,
  the hadronic reactor produces a net positive
  energy output due to the fusion of oxygen and
  carbon into silica.

84

• C(12,6,0,12.0000) He(4, 2,0,4.0026) TR ?
  O(16,8,0,15.9949) ?E
• E 0.0077 u
• It also verifies all conservation laws.
• The interior of the reactor was cleaned, and
  various components replaced a vacuum was pulled
  out of the interior chamber the reactor was
  filled up with commercial grade helium at 100
  psi.
• It was found that oxygen content decreased to a
  non-detectable amount but the CO increased from a
  non-detectable amount to 424.

85

• In the first step, the oxygen is synthesized at
  the tip of the DC arc when hitting the carbon in
  the cathode surface.
• The ensuing large local heat production rapidly
  expels the synthesized oxygen from the DC arc,
  thus preventing any additional nuclear synthesis.
  
• The creation of CO is consequential due to the
  great affinity of carbon and oxygen.

12. Additional confirmation of intermediate
controlled nuclear fusion without harmful
radiations or waste, Ruggero Maria Santilli,
Proceedings of the Third International Conference
on Lie-admissible Treatment of Irreversible
Processes (ICLATIP - 3), Kathmandu University,
Nepal, April (2011) pages 163-177
View of the scorched electrode12
86
Particle Type Hadronic Energy Stimulated Decay
of Neutron

• Low binding energy resulting in
  photo-disintegration of nuclei due to 2.22
  MeV and 2.62 MeV photons respectively are
  well-known.
• Similarly, stimulated decay of neutrons is also a
  well-known phenomenon. The prediction and its
  quantitative treatment can be done by hadronic
  mechanics.

87

• According to Prof. Santilli, neutron is an
  unlimited source of energy because it decays
  releasing highly energetic electron and neutrino
  that can be easily trapped with a metal shield.
• It is well-known that an isolated neutron is
  unstable and has half life of 15 minutes.
• However, as a constituent of nuclei, it shows
  high stability which has been attributed to a
  strong nuclear force of attraction.
• The neutron shows stimulated decay as
• TR n ? p ß
• where ß has spin zero for the conservation law
  of the angular momentum.
• ß also be considered either as an electron and
  a neutrino or as an electron and an antietherino
  with opposing spin 1/2. This difference is
  irrelevant for the stimulated decay of the
  neutron.

88
Mechanism for stimulated decay

• Resonating photon hitting a nucleus excites the
  isoelectron inside a neutron irrespective of
  whether the photon penetrates or not inside the
  neutron.
• The excited isoelectron leaves the neutron
  structure, thus causing its stimulated decay.
• This is due to the fact that hadronic mechanics
  predicts only one energy level for the proton and
  the electron in conditions of total mutual
  immersion (as in neutron).
• Range of hadronic mechanics is given by the
  radius of neutron (1 fm).
• Thus, the excited isoelectron excites the proton
  and reassumes its conventional quantum features
  when moving in vacuum.
• Numerous additional triggers are predicted by
  hadronic mechanics such as photons with a
  wavelength equal to the neutron size. Here, the
  whole neutron is excited, rather than the
  isoelectron in its interior, but the result is
  always the stimulated decay.

89
Double beta decay

• In this typical example of double decay first
  reaction is stimulated and the second is
  spontaneous9.
• The original isotope should-
• 1) Admit stimulated decay of at least one of its
  peripheral neutrons via one photon with a
  resonating frequency verifying all conservation
  laws of the energy, angular momentum, etc.
• 2) The new nucleus formed should undergo
  spontaneous beta decay so that with one
  resonating photon there is production of two
  electrons whose kinetic energy is trapped with a
  metal shield to produce heat.

90
3) The original isotope is metallic so that,
following the emission of two electrons, it
acquires an electric charge suitable for the
production of a DC current between the metallic
isotope and the metallic shield. 4) The energy
balance is positive. 5) The initial and final
isotopes are light, natural and stable elements
so that the new energy is clean (since the
electrons can be easily trapped with a thin metal
shield), and produce non-radioactive waste.
91

• E.g. double beta decay of the Mo(100, 42, 0)
• ?r (0, 0, 1) Mo (100, 42, 0) ? Tc (100, 43, 1)
  ß (0, -1, 0)
• Tc (100, 43, 1) ? Ru (100, 44, 0) ß (0, -1,
  0)
• Mo(100, 42, 0) is naturally stable with mass
  99.9074771 amu
• Tc(100, 43) has mass 99.9076576 amu and is
  naturally unstable with spontaneous decay into
  Ru(100, 44, 0) and half life of 15.8 s
• Ru(100, 44) is naturally stable with mass
  99.9042197 amu.
• Although the mass of Mo(100, 42, 0) is smaller
  than that of Tc(100, 43, 1), yet the conservation
  of energy can be verified with a resonating
  frequency of 0.16803 MeV (obtained for n1/7).

92

• But the mass of the original isotope is bigger
  than that of the final isotope for a value much
  bigger than that of the resonating photon, with
  usable hadronic energy (HE) power nuclear
  reaction
• HE M(100, 42) M(100, 44) E(?) 2 x E(e)
• 3.034 0.184 1.022MeV 1.828MeV
• where Santilli subtracts the conventional rest
  energy of the two electrons because it is not
  usable as a source of energy in this case.
• Under the assumptions of using a coherent beam
  with resonating photons hitting a sufficient mass
  of Mo(100, 42, 0) suitable to produce 1020
  stimulated nuclear transmutations per hour, we
  have the following
• Hadronic production of heat
• 2x1020 MeV/h 3x104 BTU/h,
• Hadronic production of electricity
• 2x1020 e/h 200C/h55 mA.

93
Conclusion

• The clean and sustainable energy requirements can
  be met using hadronic chemistry.
• Magnecular combustion can be considered superior
  to molecular combustion due to its weak bond,
  stored magnetostatic energy and highly ordered
  structure.
• ICNF seems to be more promising than hot or cold
  fusion in terms of reproducibility and energy
  input to output ratio.
• Preliminary studies indicate that stimulated beta
  decay also holds promising results in clean
  energy harnessing.

94
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