Mapping for Learning: Mapping

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Mapping for Learning Mapping

• A given set of data only acquires significance
  when we map it onto a pattern of some kind.
• (March and Steadman, p.29)

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Brain Waves

• In 1930s, Berger, a German psychiatrist
  discovered electrical brain waves
• Any stimulus produces electrical responses in the
  brain called evoked potentials (recorded
  averaged to remove noise)
• When the stimulus is cognitive or intellectual
  task, the recording is a cognitive evoked
  potential

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Analyzing Brain Activity

• Brain mapping using X-rays makes it possible to
  see brain structure (CT scan)
• Brain mapping using radioactive chemicals (PET
  scan)made it possible to study brain function
  over time (in intervals of thousandths of a
  second)
• Millions of pieces of information can be stored
  on computers to be analyzed

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Cognitive Process of Mapping (1)

• A given set of data only acquires significance
  when we map it onto a pattern of some kind.
  (March and Steadman, p.29)
• Cognitive (process of) mapping those abilities
  which enable us to collect, organize, store and
  recall, and operate on information about our
  environment

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Cognitive Process of Mapping (2)

• Mental map is a product of the cognitive process
  of mapping - cross sections of the world at one
  instant in time
• Key concepts employed in studying cognitive
  mapping representation and environment

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Why is cognitive mapping important? (1)

• Draw and describe in one sentence THIS picture.

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Why is cognitive mapping important? (2)

• Are cognitive maps accurate?
• Is there a 1-1 correspondence between ones
  representations and the actual spatial
  environment?
• Are mental maps similar? Given two individuals,
  how similar might their maps be of the same
  environment?
• Is learning going to induce dissimilarities?

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How Useful Are Mental Maps in Everyday Life?

• Examples?
• ...
• An understanding of how individuals cognitively
  map an environment can be used to provide a
  common map which can convey the maximum
  information to the greatest number of individuals

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Research on the Cognitive Process of Mapping

• Think about this moment in which I am trying to
  convey some (new?) concepts to you
• What guides this mapping process?

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Mapping Problem Solving Sanfords (1985)

• A mapping between a problem-statement and
  relevant schemata in LTM
• Problem solving begins with the manipulation of
  this mapping in WM
• If an information-state developed in WM matches a
  structure in LTM, a new structure is stored in
  LTM (WM ?LTM)

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Problem Solving Abduction Sanfords (1985)

• A problem ? schemata in LTM
• Manipulation of this mapping in WM
• WM ?LTM a new structure stored in LTM
• Abduction The new knowledge-state which a solved
  problem represents can often be achieved by
  introducing information from sources external to
  the problem-statement

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Mathematical Mapping

• f X?Y For every x?X there exists exactly one y?Y
  such that yf(x)
• Is geographical mapping a species of mathematical
  mapping?
• Cartography is seen as a type of mathematical
  modeling involving abstraction
• Domain?

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Cognitive Mapping Formal Definition

• Downs and Stea (1973) formally define
  cognitive mapping as
• a process composed of a series of psychological
  transformations by which an individual acquires,
  codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information
  about the relative locations and attributes of
  phenomena in their everyday spatial environment

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About Cognitive Maps (Neisse, U.,1976)

• An individuals cognitive map is an active
  information seeking structure of which spatial
  imagery is but one aspect
• Cognitive maps are created as the result of
  active and passive modes of information processing

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Cognitive Mapping Information Processing

• Generally, active information processing gives
  the greatest meaning to the information processed
  and produces more information for the perceiver
• The information produced by locomotion is
  fundamental to an individuals spatial
  orientation

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Cognitive maps Content and Form

• Cognitive maps are also made up of memories of
  objects and kinesthetic, visual and auditory cues
  (Griffin, D. R. 1973)
• Aside from the way cognitive maps are formed, the
  types of information stored in a cognitive map
  are also of interest

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What are cognitive maps made up of?

• Kuipers (1983) suggests that a cognitive map
  consists of five different types of information,
  each with its own representation
• topological
• metric
• route descriptions
• fixed features and
• sensory images

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Cognition Independent Variables

• An individuals cognition of the environment is
  not only a function of the behavior by which
  information is obtained but also depends on the
  characteristics of the environment
• The amount of information gained by each sensory
  modality is also environmentally dependent

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Personal Nature of Cognitive Maps

• How the observer interprets and organizes a
  common exterior form is unique (Lynch)
• This interpretation governs how the observer
  directs his attention and this in turn affects
  what is seen/learned. So at both a societal level
  and a cultural level cognitive maps are highly
  individualistic

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References (1)

• Downs, R. M. Stea, D. (1973). Cognitive Maps
  and Spatial Behavior. Process and Products. In
  Image and Environment, (Downs, R. M. Stea, D.
  Eds.), Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago, pp 8-26
• Griffin, D. R. (1973) Topographical orientation.
  In Image and Environment, (Downs, R. M. Stea,
  D. Eds.), Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago. pp
  296-299.
• Neisse, U. (1976).Cognition and reality, WH
  Freemn, San Francisco.

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References (2)

• Kuipers, B. (1983) The cognitive map Could it be
  any other way. In Spatial Orientation Theory,
  research and application, (Pick, H. L.
  Acredolo, L. P. Eds.) Plenium Press, New York. pp
  345-360.
• Billinghurst, M. Weghorst, S. The use of
  sketch maps to measure cognitive maps of virtual
  environment (www.hitl.washington.edu/publications/
  p-94-1/paper.html)