Buffalo Soldiers

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Buffalo Soldiers
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Artist of the WestFrederic Remington
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Regular U.S. Army

• Primary functions to 20th century
• Frontier constabulary
• Coastal defense

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How was the U.S. to fight wars?

• To meet large manpower requirements
• Call out state militias
• Limited federal service
• Raise volunteer units
• Raised by states (appointed unit officers)
• Incorporated into federal armies

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Questions

• Attitudes of regular officers?
• Relationship between army and American society?
• What are the implications of the end of the
  Indian wars?

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U.S. Army in late 19th century

• Era of isolation
• Efforts at professionalization

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Professionalism encompasses

• Expertise
• Social Responsibility
• Corporateness

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Military Professionalism

• Expertise Management of violence
• Responsibility Defense
• Application of force in pursuit of national
  goals
• Corporateness Officers

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Earlier developments towards military
professionalization in U.S.

• U.S. Military Academy at West Point (1802)
• U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis (1845-50)
• Expansible army

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Commanding General of the Army, 1869-1883

• William Tecumseh Sherman
• Oversees formation of many military schools and
  institutions
• Helps revive artillery school, 1868
• Encourages engineering school
• Forms Military Service Institute, 1878
• Forms School of Application for Infantry and
  Cavalry, Fort Leavenworth (becomes General
  Service and Staff College), 1881

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Emory Upton

• USMA Grad
• Distinguished Civil War service
• Developed post-war tactical system
• Commandant of Cadets at USMA, 1870-75
• Sent on world tour, 1875
• Publications
• The Armies of Asia and Europe, 1878
• The Military Policy of the United States, 1904

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Upton argued officers should have greater control
of military policy

• Criticized civilian leaders lack of expertise.
• Condemned reliance on volunteers militia.
• Admired Germany.
• Wanted new, larger Army staff with greater
  control of policy, resources.
• Called for larger, expansible regular army.
• For larger manpower needs, advocated national
  volunteers under army control.

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Other Army reforms, late 1800s

• Compulsory officer retirement at age 64 (1882).
• Examinations required for promotions, up to rank
  of major (1890).
• Regular character and efficiency reports for all
  officers (mid 1890s)

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The National Guard

• 19th century mandatory militia duty not enforced
  by the states.
• Men interested in militia service joined
  voluntary companies.
• After Civil War, interest in voluntary units
  picked up in 1870s, which took name National
  Guard.

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Key function of Guard unitsStrike duty

• States revamp militia codes, 1881-92.
• Guard units called out gt700 times, 1877-1903.
• Guard units also primary reserve behind regular
  army.
• Under control of states

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U.S. Navy

• Primary functions to late-19th century
• protect commerce
• show the flag
• coastal defense
• Additional functions in war
• raid enemy commerce
• blockade/bombardment

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Navy pursued traditional functions after the
Civil War

• Size reduced from 700 (1865) to 52 (1870).
• Squadron system reinstituted.
• focus on Latin America and Asia
• Ships mostly
• wooden
• wind-powered
• armed with muzzle-loading smoothbore guns

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1880s Naval modernization begins

• Congress authorized building steel-hull vessels.
• Authorized retirement of older ships.
• New ships reflected Navys traditional functions
• Largest vessels cruisers designed for commerce
  protection/raiding, coercing non-Western peoples.

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Beginnings of the New Navy

• U.S.S. Atlanta
• U.S.S. Chicago

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Naval Professionalism

• Assisted by Stephen B. Luce
• Formed
• United States Naval Institute, 1873
• Naval War College, 1884

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A Sea-change in attitudes,1870-1890

• Calls for an American Empire - an updated form
  of Manifest Destiny. Reflected
• Growing nationalism
• Social Darwinism

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• Commerce
• With increasing industrialization, many believed
  country needed secure access to foreign markets
  for American goods
• Guaranteed access required a strong navy
• Rearmament
• Advocates feared navy becoming technologically
  obsolescent
• Also reflected career concerns of naval officers

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Benjamin F. Tracy,Secretary of the Navy, 1889-93

• Advocated new naval policy
• Strategy should emphasize command of the sea
  utilizing fleets of large warships.
• Large navy would require more bases, territories
  overseas.

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Tracy convinces Congress to build 9 battleships
before 1898

• U.S.S. Oregon
• U.S.S. Iowa

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Prophet of American Navalism

• Alfred Thayer Mahan
• Undistinguished career prior to 1886
• Most famous publication
• The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783

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Mahans writings

• Emphasized links between commerce and need for a
  large navy.
• Advocated fleet-oriented, command of the sea
  strategy.
• Disparaged guerre de course
• Called for additional overseas bases.
• Took a skewed view of history.
• Ignored developments in technology.