Fingerprints History

1
Fingerprints History

• Earliest recognition of uniqueness of
  fingerprints their suitability for personal
  identification apparently came from the ancient
  Chinese.
• They used a thumbprint in lieu of a signature on
  legal conveyances even criminal confessions.
  This was due to the prevalence of illiteracy
  making fingerprinting a practical measure.

2
Fingerprints

• First scientific recognition of fingerprints
  from certain late 17th century writings.
• 1684 Dr Nehemiah Grew report described ridges
  pores on hands feet. This started it all.
• Johannes E. Purkinje first person to devise a
  system of classifying fingerprints.

3
Fingerprints

• He published thesis in 1823 describing 9
  fingerprint patterns, gave each a name set down
  rules for individual identification, many of
  which are still followed today.
• Two men recognized use for identifying people
  from fingerprints (Japan India) working at same
  time but not aware of each others work.

4
Fingerprints

• 1877 William Herschel sought to implement his
  fingerprint system in Bengal jails but couldnt
  get permission.
• Dr. Henry Faulds, Scottish physician surgeon
  discovered that oil sweat from pores resulted
  in latent (invisible) prints that could be
  developed with powders. He used this technique to
  exonerate a man accused of burglary using
  fingerprints

5
Fingerprints

• Faulds Herschel argued over who was first in
  pioneering fingerprinting. Faulds was referred by
  Charles Darwin to Sir Francis Galton to settle
  argument.
• Galton was interested in who pioneered it. He
  wanted to join in the new field.

6
Fingerprints

• Galton published textbook, Finger Prints, in 1892
  giving credit to Herschel as the first to devise
  a system for the use of fingerprints for
  identification most important, setting forth a
  practical method of classification - Not just by
  patterns but by entire set of fingerprints of an
  individual so they could be filed.

7
Fingerprints

• Edward Henry, Herschels successor in India,
  became interested in fingerprinting he began
  work on his own classification system.
• He simplified where possible, and added
  complexity where needed. Overall, he shaped the
  whole into a fully practical workable system.

8
Fingerprints

• Completed in 1899, his system was published in
  book form the following year.
• In 1901, the Henry system of fingerprint
  classification filing was implemented in
  England Wales.
• With later modifications by the FBI, the Henry
  system continues in use to the present day.

9
Fingerprints

• 1894 Britain primary identification method
  bertillonage (system of anthropometry created by
  Alphonse Bertillon involving recording 11
  measurements.
• By turn of century, Scotland yard began to rely
  on fingerprints. Reluctantly, Bertillon added
  space on his record cards but for the right hand
  only.

10
Fingerprints

• 1903, in the U.S. came case that marked the
  beginning of the end of bertillonage.
• 5-1-1903 Will West sent to Leavenworth
  Penitentiary. Bertillon measurements taken. Clerk
  said he looked familiar, found another card with
  similar measurements photo looking like him.
  Name on card was William West. So both men were
  brought together in same room.

11
Fingerprints

• Will William West denied being related but were
  actually identical twins. They had similar
  fingerprint patterns, ear patterns wrote to the
  same brother, 5 sisters Uncle George.
• Fingerprints were taken one man could be
  distinguished from another without fail.
• The next day, the Henry method was adopted by the
  prison.

12
Fingerprints

• In 1924, U.S. Congress established at the
  then-Bureau of Investigation (now FBI) the
  Identification Division to serve as nations
  repository of all fingerprints records.
• During gangster era (20s-30s) finger-printing
  captured imagination of American public when it
  was seen as the premier scientific weapon for
  dealing with public enemies.

13
Fingerprints

• Public Enemy 1, John Dillinger, sought to have
  fingerprints altered at same time he had plastic
  surgery to alter his face.
• Result was a portion of each print scarred, but
  more than enough was left to match to his file
  prints. Scar patterns call attention to
  themselves. Like everything in nature, no two
  scar patterns are exactly alike.

14
Fingerprints

• Today FBIs Identification Division is largest
  unit with over 2,600 employees.
• More than 200 million sets of prints represent
  more than 68 million individuals on file in the
  Criminal Justice Information Services Division.
• Non-criminal fingerprint files are kept elsewhere.

15
Classification of Fingerprints

• Second reason to leave Bertillon method theft of
  Mona Lisa from the Louvre on August 21, 1911.
• Thief left clear thumbprint on glass from
  painting. Bertillon had no method of
  classification for fingerprints on his cards.
• Two years later, thief arrested, print from left
  thumb, prints on file from right hand.

16
Classification of Fingerprints

• Sir Edward Henry lived to see his system of
  fingerprint classification become adopted
  succeed.
• With some modification, the Henry system is the
  one we use today!
• The system divides fingerprints into 3 basic
  pattern types arches, loops, whorls.

17
Classification of Fingerprints

• A fourth type listed in some books composites,
  also known as accidentals is considered a
  subtype of whorls the accidental whorl.
• These three main types are subdivided into eight
  distinct patterns.

18
Classification of Fingerprints

• Arch Plain or Tented
• Loop Radial or Ulnar
• Whorl Plain, Central Pocket Loop, Double Loop,
  Accidental
• All human fingerprints have friction ridges and
  these ridges form the basis of all fingerprint
  patterns.

19
Classification of Fingerprints

• Arch Patterns
• Plain Arch ridges flow from one side of the
  pattern to the other with a rise or wave in the
  center has a smooth rise a gentle upward
  curve simplest of all fingerprint patterns
  generally gives no difficulty being correctly
  identified.

20
Classification of Fingerprints
21
Classification of Fingerprints

• Arch Patterns
• Tented Arch More complex has either a central
  upthrust or well-defined angle regarded as
  transitional pattern between arch loop example
  may be seen with recurving ridge or other
  feature common to loop pattern. But, it doesnt
  have all 4 of pattern requisites
• Arches represent only about 5 of all pattern
  types.

22
Classification of Fingerprints

• Loop Patterns a loop has one or more ridges that
  enter on one side, recurve, flow back out on
  same side.
• True loop-4 characteristics core, approx.
  center of pattern delta or triangular area
  caused by divergence of ridges at least 1
  recurving ridge passing between core delta at
  least 1 ridge count ( of ridges that cross or
  touch imaginary line between precise core
  precise delta).

23
Classification of Fingerprints
24
Classification of Fingerprints

• Radial Loop Ulnar Loop based on ridge flow
  direction relative to 2 long bones on forearm.
  Radiusthumb side Ulnalittle finger side. To
  characterize fingerprint as radial or ulnar loop,
  you must know which hand it came from. Ridge
  flows are reversed for left right hands.
• Loops 60 of all fingerprints most common
  fingerprint pattern

25
Classification of Fingerprints

• Whorl patterns
• Plain whorl has 2 deltas at least 1 ridge that
  makes a complete circuit about the core. Some
  have concentric circles, ovals, or spiral
• Central pocket loop whorl complex pattern,
  perhaps most troublesome to classify essentially
  a combination of loop whorl has all
  characteristics of loop with addition of second
  delta near core whorl-type ridge or ridges
  circuiting around the core.

26
Classification of Fingerprints
27
Classification of Fingerprints

• How to differentiate between plain whorl
  central pocket loop whorl Draw a line between
  deltas plain whorl must cross at least 1
  whorl-type ridge in central pocket loop whorl,
  this cannot happen.
• Double loop whorl consists of 2 separate loop
  formation, each with its own core 2 deltas.

28
Classification of Fingerprints
29
Classification of Fingerprints

• Accidental whorl is a pattern with 2 or more
  deltas that may not be placed by definition in
  any of the other classes.
• Whorls represent 35 of all fingerprint patterns.
• Fingerprints intended for classification filing
  are recorded on standard 8 x 8 cards.

30
Classification of Fingerprints

• These cards have spaces for rolled impressions
  from each finger (inked rolled from one side to
  the other to record the entire pattern) plus
  spaces for plain impressions (four fingers of
  each hand are pressed simultaneously, followed by
  the unrolled thumb print) which serve as checks
  on the rolled impression so they are recorded in
  correct sequence.

31
Classification of Fingerprints

• Top of card, fingerprint classification name
  are recorded. On reverse, portrait parle (word
  picture) of the subject height, weight, eye
  color, hair color, scars, etc. a place for
  full-face profile photos. Space for a criminal
  history is usually included on cards recording
  fingerprints of felons.

32
Classification of Fingerprints

• After prints are recorded information put on
  card, 1st stage of classification begins called
  blocking out the set of prints by placing in
  space below each rolled impression a
  letter/symbol corresponding to its pattern type.
• All whorls are marked W ulnar loops are
  signified by \ for right hand / for left hand

33
Classification of Fingerprints

• For index fingers A for plain arch, T for tented
  arch, R for radial loop.
• For all other fingers the same symbols are used
  but in lowercase a, t, r.
• Next ridge counts of all loop patterns are
  written in upper right corners of blocks.

34
Classification of Fingerprints

• Finally, each whorl-type pattern is given a ridge
  trace from lower left side of left delta to right
  delta dropping to a lower ridge anytime the ridge
  ends or forks. If trace ends within 1 or 2 ridges
  of right delta, a meeting whorl is indicated,
  otherwise it is designated as inner whorl or
  outer whorl depending on whether trace ridge
  passes inside or outside the right delta.

35
Classification of Fingerprints

• The symbol for appropriate ridge tracing I, M,
  or O is written in upper right-hand corner of
  each finger block containing a whorl-type pattern
  to complete blocking-out process.
• Formula for classifying fingerprints may be
  composed of 7 possible divisions primary,
  secondary, subsecondary, major divisions, second
  subsecondary, final key.

36
Classification of Fingerprints

• Positions in completed classification line are as
  shown below Right hand on top of line, left hand
  below the line
• 
  Second
• 
  Subsecondary
• 
  Classification
• Key Major Primary
  Secondary Subsecondary Final
• Divisions Classification
  Classification Classification

37
Classification of Fingerprints

• Note some elements extend above below the line.
  Second subsecondary classification, as its
  position indicates, is optional, used when a
  group of fingerprints becomes so large that it
  needs further subdivision.
• Key is the ridge count of the first loop. For the
  major divisions, ridge counts of thumb are used.

38
Classification of Fingerprints

• Anything over 22 ridges is termed large.
• Primary classification, whorls are recorded
• Secondary classification represents the patterns
  of index fingers.
• Subsecondary classification is based on the 3
  middle fingers of each hands with whorls being
  designated I, M, or O loops depending on small
  or large ridge counts being represented as I or O.

39
Classification of Fingerprints

• Final classification records ridge count of the
  right little finger with provisions for that
  print being a pattern other than a loop.
• Such as classification system permits
  fingerprints to be filed subsequently
  retrieved.
• Primary classification alone permits fingerprint
  cards to be divided into 1,024 groups.

40
Classification of Fingerprints

• Classification of Scarface Al Capone
• 29 L 1 U
  IOI 6
• L 1 U
  IOI
• Remember right hand on top of line left hand on
  bottom of line

41
Classification of Fingerprints

• Key for right thumb is 29, over 22 ridges so
  Capone gets L/L, devoid of any whorl-type
  patterns so assigned a simple 1/1 for primary
  classification, index fingers ulnar loops so U/U
  for secondary classification, IOI/IOI for three
  middle fingers as sub-secondary classification,
  ridge count on right little finger is 6 for final
  classification. Second subsecondary
  classification omitted

42
Classification of Fingerprints

• In 1933, the FBI addressed the longtime problem
  of being limited to searching files of known
  suspects.
• Inauguration of a single-fingerprint file using
  modifications of a method developed by former
  Scotland yard Chief Inspector Harry Battley.

43
Classification of Fingerprints

• The method utilized a special reticule, half of
  which had a series of concentric circles that
  were used to define specific areas of scrutiny.
  Some pattern types were sub-divided (arches into
  5 categories) ridge counts for whorls were
  added.
• Additional work multiplied tenfold the work for
  classificating fingerprints.

44
Classification of Fingerprints

• As a practical matter, files were kept only for
  certain notorious criminals, repeat felons,
  those in certain categories such as bank robbers
  kidnappers.
• Since 1970, computer technology has made it
  possible to automate the process of fingerprint
  searching with the automated fingerprint
  identification systems (AFIS).

45
Classification of Fingerprints

• A serial killer in Los Angeles with 15 murders
  was identified in about 20 minutes after AFIS was
  brought into service.
• This would have taken about 67 years to manually
  search through the fingerprint files that AFIS
  did in under half an hour.

46
Identification of Fingerprints

• Method of comparison of fingerprints is to use
  the ridge characteristics or minutiae to
  individualize the print, establishing the
  individuality or uniqueness of it.
• One should speak of identifying a marking as a
  fingerprint but of individualizing a fingerprint
  as that belonging to a particular person.

47
Identification of Fingerprints

• Ridge characteristics or minutiae used to
  individualize a fingerprint include those used in
  AFIS.
• Ridge ending termination point of a friction
  ridge (end of friction ridge)
• Bifurcation branching or forking of a ridge
  into two ridges

48
Identification of Fingerprints

• Ridge dot ridge feature that resembles a period
  is only about as long as it is wide.
• Enclosure ridge characteristic resembling eyelet
  caused by bifurcation legs coming together again
  to form a single ridge.
• Short ridge one whose terminal (end) points are
  very close together.

49
Classification of Fingerprints
50
Identification of Fingerprints

• Trifurcation branching into 3 bridges
• Bridge or bar linking two ridges
• Creases short white lines crossing ridges, not
  considered minutiae because they are impermanent
  features (not permanent)
• Scar may be utilized as such for purpose of
  comparing two prints

51
Identification of Fingerprints

• To actually make a comparison, expert looks for 4
  elements to match other print so
  individualization may be declared.
• 1. Likeness of pattern two prints must have a
  likeness of pattern types arches, loops, etc.
• 2. Qualitative likeness of ridge minutiae ridge
  endings must match such as enclosures,
  bifurcations, etc.

52
Identification of Fingerprints

• 3. Quantitative likeness of ridge minutiae
  sufficient of ridge details present for
  individualization to be declared.
• 4. Likeness of location of minutiae friction
  ridge details must be in same relative position,
  same relative directions distance from each
  other same of ridges between them in both
  fingerprints

53
Identification of Fingerprints

• There must be no unexplained differences between
  prints
• Ten to twelve characteristics would generally
  seem reasonable number in most cases, fewer if
  points of comparison are particularly distinctive
• If pores in ridges are visible, science of
  poroscopy may be applied

54
Identification of Fingerprints

• Pores are also different from person to person
  are permanent may serve as basis for a positive
  individualization of one print with another
• Comparator imaging device placing two greatly
  enlarged images side by side on an illuminated
  viewing screen.

55
Identification of Fingerprints

• Modern electronic imaging technology using
  digital photography can also provide nearly
  instant enlargements of fingerprints for
  comparative purposes
• For courtroom presentation, the known file print
  the questioned latent print are compared side
  by side in greatly enlarged form.

56
Identification of Fingerprints

• Standard method of demonstrating similarity is to
  draw fine line from each ridge characteristic to
  white space surrounding the print give each
  such point its own number.
• Placement of lines s should be as similar as
  possible on both prints. Usually s names of
  features they represent are listed on exhibit to
  avoid confusion

57
Identification of Fingerprints

• Footprints palmprints are just as unique as
  fingerprints can be used as evidence
• Any area of the inner surface of the hands or
  feet contains friction ridges and patterns that
  are just as effective for comparison as
  fingerprints.
• Only drawback is difficulty of recording and
  classifying such impressions

58
Processing and Recovery

• Fingerprints may be recovered from a crime scene
  in several forms. It is usual to list three
  types of prints discussed presently, but a fourth
  special type might be considered as part of a
  gruesome category such as dismembered fingers or
  partial tears or dismemberments or even parts of
  an ear

59
Processing and Recovery

• Plastic fingerprints those impressed into some
  substance such as wax, soap, putty or even dust
  3-D depressions made by friction ridges
• Visible prints those left by fingers that have
  been coated with some colored substance such as
  blood, grease, paint, dirt or ink

60
Processing and Recovery

• Latent fingerprints lie hidden or are
  relatively invisible need some form of
  processing or developing.
• Plastic visible fingerprints may easily be
  photographed, but latent prints require careful
  handling. They are of a delicate nature.

61
Processing and Recovery

• Surface must be able to retain the print without
  absorbing spreading it
• Hard, glossy objects (i.e. glass enamel painted
  walls/doors) present ideal surfaces
• Dirty surfaces absorbent materials do not
  readily bear prints
• Fingerprint must be deposited with right amount
  of pressure

62
Processing and Recovery

• Object must not be touched with an excess of
  pressure. This tends to spread the print.
• Persons fingers must have certain degree of
  moisture or should have some body grease on
  ridges.
• When all these requirements are fulfilled a god
  latent fingerprint is deposited.

63
Processing and Recovery

• Thin film of latent fingerprint contains
  substances - predominantly perspiration,
  secreted by pores in friction ridges, /or body
  oils acquired by contact with other parts of the
  body notably the hair and face
• Perspiration made up of moisture, salt, amino
  acids, dead epidermal cells, and various foreign
  substances

64
Processing and Recovery

• Decision regarding what treatment should be used
  to develop a latent print depends largely on the
  surface on which it lies, experience with the
  substances in the prints and the technology
  available.
• Searching for fingerprints is conducted by
  specially trained personnel

65
Processing and Recovery

• Wearing light cloth gloves while collecting
  evidence is recommended although some experts use
  disposable latex gloves.
• One authoritative source recommends against
  gloves entirely since they invite carelessness
  that may destroy prints or leave glove prints
  that mislead others.

66
Processing and Recovery

• Objects should be handled minimally by edges or
  by surfaces unreceptive to prints
• Fingerprint expert should be given priority
  access to objects such as firearms documents
  over other criminalists
• Any articles removed from scene must be correctly
  labeled carefully transported to prevent
  destruction of prints

67
Processing and Recovery

• In looking for fingerprints, flashlight
  magnifying glass represent standard equipment.
• Beam of flashlight at an acute angle to surface
  may help reveal latent impressions.
• Examining surface from various angles may
  accomplish same purpose

68
Processing and Recovery

• When a plastic or visible fingerprint is
  discovered, it should be photographed in situ, as
  should a latent impression after it is developed
• Approach for latent prints discovered on
  nonporous surfaces begins with visual search if
  necessary search with more sophisticated light
  sources argon laser beam causing latent print to
  fluoresce

69
Processing and Recovery

• Using lasers to detect latent prints is clean
  -no pretreatment of specimen is required -no
  alteration of evidence. Therefore it is used 1st
  conventional methods used 2nd
• RUVIS Reflected Ultraviolet Imaging System makes
  use of wavelengths beyond those of visible light
  can reveal latent impressions that might
  otherwise go undetected

70
Processing and Recovery

• Following laser detection on nonporous surface,
  next step for relatively small objects is to
  develop print using cyanoacrylate vapor a.k.a.
  Superglue
• Technique was brought from Japan to US by Ed
  German Paul Norkus of U.S. Army crime lab
  improved in 1982 by Frank Kendall by adding
  sodium hydroxide

71
Processing and Recovery

• Fuming process is carried out in an airtight
  tank.
• Instead of fuming or in addition to it,
  fingerprint expert may use a brush to apply
  fingerprint powders.
• Standard powders are lampblack for use on
  light-colored surfaces titanium oxide for dark
  surfaces.

72
Processing and Recovery

• Colored powders such as dragons blood are used
  for certain special situations.
• Alternatively, a magnetic-sensitive powder is
  applied with magnet - Magna Brush. Since no brush
  bristles, less chance print will be damaged.
• Special fluorescent powders used with laser or
  other forensic light sources

73
Processing and Recovery

• Reason for using first the forensic light
  sources, then chemical fuming, finally dusting
  with powders is to be as non-destructive as
  possible.
• Powder may result in smudging or over-processing
  the print once it is used, other procedures are
  generally precluded

74
Processing and Recovery

• After a print is developed by powdering, it may
  be lifted with special transparent tape then
  protected with a stiff, transparent cover
• Since lifting process is somewhat risky may
  damage or distort print, impression should be
  photographed before lifting tape is applied

75
Processing and Recovery

• Porous surfaces such as paper, cardboard
  unpainted wood present more difficulty.
• With such surfaces, powders should be avoided
  since they tend to adhere to the background
  surface as well as the print.
• Following visual fluorescent examination, you
  can use chemical treatment with ninhydrin to
  develop latent impressions that might be present

76
Processing and Recovery

• Other techniques used for porous materials
  include application of a solution of silver
  nitrate or other silver based solution called
  physical developer.
• For developing prints on wet surface, a material
  called small particle reagent may be used

77
Processing and Recovery

• One of most difficult surfaces to develop
  fingerprints on (yet one of the most useful as
  probative evidence) is human skin
• The fact that murderers frequently grab their
  victims makes it desirable for homicide
  investigators to develop identifiable
  fingerprints from the corpses skin

78
Processing and Recovery

• Problem developing skin fingerprints is they
  contain same substances as human skin does.
• Most effective procedure is cyanoacrylate fuming
  technique applying magnetic fingerprint powder

79
Processing and Recovery

• Because of condensation on refrigerated bodies,
  it is recommended that prints be recovered before
  the body is refrigerated if possible. Otherwise,
  the process should be delayed while any moisture
  evaporates
• Enhancing fingerprints can be done using programs
  such as Adobe Photoshop to improve sharpness
  contrast.

80
Case Study Aileen WuornosFemale Serial Killer

• Gives evidentiary value to fingerprints.
• Female lesbian prostitute who shot her victims
  whether or not they picked her up as a prostitute
  or not
• Watch A E movie Death Row Prostitute and
  answer video quiz questions.