Students

1
Students expectation

• Todays students expect of colleges and
  universities what they demand elsewhere better
  service, lower costs, higher quality, and a mix
  of products that satisfy their own sense of what
  a good education ought to provide. They want the
  enterprises that serve them to be efficient not
  for efficiencys sake, but because efficiency
  promotes the flexibility and adaptability they
  seek in the marketplace.
• (quoted in Lewis Smith, 1994, p. 4)

2
Definitions for quality in higher
education

• Quality assurance refers to systematic,
  structured and continuous attention to quality in
  terms of quality maintenance and improvement
  (Vroeijenstijn, 1995).

3
Two schools of thought

• Quality to a context and as a consequence quality
  becomes meaningful (Baird, 1988 Fry, 1995
  Nordvall and Braxton, 1996).
• For example, references to the quality of
  assessment, student intake, academic programmes,
  teaching and learning, the student experience and
  programme designs are not uncommon. Any attempt
  to define or attach meaning to the term is
  largely ignored and one is left to assume that it
  is high quality that is being referred to as
  opposed to good or poor quality.

4

• A second way of thinking about quality relates to
  a stakeholder-specific meaning. Here quality is
  considered, having regard to a variety of
  stakeholders with an interest in higher
  education, each having the potential to think
  about quality in different ways. In
  particular,the early works of Vroeijenstijn
  (1992), Middlehurst (1992) and Harvey and Green
  (1993) highlight the importance and value of
  considering quality from a variety of stakeholder
  perspectives.

5
Value systems for Quality

• PROCESS CONTROL
• CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
• COMMITMENT
• BREAKTHROUGH
• Source Van Kemenade, Pupius Hardjono, 2008

6
PROCESS CONTROL

• Order - everything has a purpose, a place and a
  reason
• Only one right way
• Rules and regulations quality assurance by
  means of quality control
• The extent to which an object fits to standard
• Third party audit accreditation system
• Source Van Kemenade, Pupius Hardjono, 2008

7
CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT

• SUCCESS people are meant to succeed and become
  winners
• Compete for success, change to progress
• Goal orientation, managing as a business,
  excellence model, business planning
• The extent to which the expectations of the
  customer are exceeded
• The customers model EFQM, Malcolm Baldridge
• Source Van Kemenade, Pupius Hardjono, 2008

8
COMMITMENT

• COMMUNITY there is plenty of room for everyone
  human bond
• Everybody is equal and people become members of a
  community
• Consensus management, political correctness,
  people concerns, people development
• The extent to which the goals of stakeholders are
  fulfilled taking into account here and now and
  the future
• Do the students get transformed into citizens of
  the world.
• Source Van Kemenade, Pupius Hardjono, 2008

9
BREAKTHROUGH

• Synergy we are open to learning at anytime and
  from any source
• Integrative structures, inevitability of change
• Cross-university collaboration, self-managed
  teams, reduction in hierarchical command and
  control
• The extent to which the goals of all stakeholders
  will be fulfilled in the future
• Source Van Kemenade, Pupius Hardjono, 2008

10
Quality Concepts

• After completing this topic, you should be able
  to
• Understand various definitions of quality
• Learn about dimensions of quality
• Understand the forces affecting quality
  management
• Understand the importance of quality
• Readings
• Chapter 1 B. Janakiraman R.K. Gopal, 2007
• Maureen Brookes Nina Becket, Quality Management
  in Higher Education

11
Contradictory objectives

• In the academic world quality assessment has
  traditionally assumed two apparently
  contradictory objectives
• Quality improvement
• Accountability

12

• Universities mostly emphasize quality
  improvement, while the government pays special
  attention to accountability, aiming at
  guaranteeing the quality of the services provided
  to society by higher education institutions.
• Alberto Amaral, 2006

13
Factors

• Emergence of markets as tools of public policy to
  increase efficiency and to maximize the provision
  of social benefits.
• The rise of New Public Management policy
• Globalisation
• Growing supranational organizations interference
  in higher education.

14
New Public Management

• Under NPM, students are referred to as customers
  or clients, and quality assurance and
  accountability measures have been put in place to
  ensure that academic provision meets the clients
  needs and expectations.

15
Globalization

• World wide organizations have produced codes of
  good practice.
• Countries that are exporters of higher education
  (US, UK, Australia) have established codes and/or
  principles of ethical and/or good practice for
  the assurance of academic quality and standards
  in the provision of education to foreign students.

16
3E

• Economy in the acquisition of resources,
• Efficiency in the use of resources, and
• Effectiveness in the achievement
• of objectives.

17
Class discussion

• Quality management in higher education

18
Questions

• Define 5 meaning of quality relevant to education
  and give examples.
• Quality control versus quality assurance
  discuss.
• Driving forces for quality movement discuss
• Discuss purposes of quality assurance
• Give a 5-7 minutes presentation

19
Quality

• The concept of quality is not new it has always
  been part of the academic tradition. It is the
  outside world that now emphasizes the need for
  attention to quality. It is the relationship
  between higher education and society which has
  changed.

20
Quality

• By the end of the 1990s concern for quality and
  standards was global. From a UK perspective this
  was viewed in terms of the withdrawal of trust
  (Trow, 1994) and the drive towards
  managerialism (Kogan, 1989).

21
Confusion in Quality

• Becher (1989) - a creature of political
  fashion.
• Neave (1986) - elusive (vague)
• Harvey and Green (1993) - slippery and
  value-laden
• Scott (1994) - No authoritative definition of
  quality in higher education is possible
• (Westerheidjen, 1999) - Lack of theory of
  quality in higher education literature

22
Higher Education Institution

• HEI means and educational institution whether or
  not established under any written law and
  including private educational institution
  providing higher education leading to the award
  of a certificate, diploma, degree or the
  equivalent thereof. (Akta Majlis Pendidikan
  Tinggi Negara 1996 - Akta 546)
• Institusi pendidikan tinggi ialah institusi
  pendidikan yang menyediakan pendidikan tinggi
  yang membawa kepada penganugerahan diploma,
  ijazah atau yang setaraf dengannya (Akta
  Pendidikan 1996)

23
University or University College

• University or University College means
• (a) University or University College established
  under the Universities and University Colleges
  Act 1971 or
• (b) a private higher educational institution
  with the status of a University or University
  College, a branch campus of a foreign University
  or University College, established under the
  Private Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996
  (Act 546)

24
Management as defined

• Management is defined as the effective use and
  coordination of resources such as capital, plant,
  materials, and labour to achieve defined
  objectives with maximum efficiency (International
  Dictionary of Management).
• Covers the relevant aspects of efficiency,
  effectiveness in the usage of resources,
  financial management and implementation of stated
  programs.

25
Accountability/ Kebertanggungjawaban

• The obligation to give answers and explanations
  concerning ones action and performance, to those
  with a right to require such answers and
  explanations (Ahmad Sarji Abdul Hamid, 1991
  Perkhidmatan Awam Yang Berkualiti).
• Bertanggungjawab kepada atau terhadap sesuatu
  tindakan dan perbuatan (Kamus Dewan).
• Seorang pegawai bertanggungjawab kepada pihak
  atasan mengenai cara sesuatu tindakan atau
  keputusan yang diambil olehnya mengikut
  garispanduan dan peraturan yang ditetapkan.

26
Accountability/ Kebertanggungjawaban

• Therefore, an organization / university has the
  obligation to give answers and explanations
  concerning its own action and performance, to
  those with a right to require such answers and
  explanations (government, stakeholders).
• Bertanggungjawab kepada atau terhadap sesuatu
  tindakan dan perbuatan (Kamus Dewan).
• Seorang pegawai bertanggungjawab kepada pihak
  atasan mengenai cara sesuatu tindakan atau
  keputusan yang diambil olehnya mengikut
  garispanduan dan peraturan yang ditetapkan.

27
Accountability

• It implies an agreement
• An exchange between two parties in which one
  says essentially, You give me the means and I
  will do what we agreed upon. The other says,
  Fine, as long as you demonstrate you are doing
  it well.
• Based on the above definition, an accountability
  relationship has the following elements
• (a) Resources and/or authority conferred
  conditionally,
• (b) Agreement to use what ism given to carry out
  particular responsibilities
• (c) Obligation to demonstrate that what is given
  is used conscientiously for the agreed purposes

28
Government commitment

• The Malaysian Public Service Commitments 2008
• Launched by Tan Sri Mohd Sidek Hassan Chief
  Secretary to the Government of Malaysia January
  2008.
• Towards a Customer Centric Malaysian Public
  Service

29
Government commitment

• Mewujudkan budaya perkhidmatan yang berfokuskan
  pelanggan berdasarkan ciri-ciri berikut
• Kebolehpercayaan dan kebolehjangkaan (reliability
  and predictability)
• Responsif (high level of responsiveness)
• Menepati masa (timeliness of responsiveness)
• Berbudi bahasa dan cekap (courtesy and
  competence)
• Persekitaran mesra pelanggan (customer friendly
  environment)

30
Factors for the Increase inPublic Demand for
Accountability

• Fiscal pressures
• Competition in funds
• Faced with tighter budgets
• Rise in perceived importance of the function of
  postsecondary institutions
• The benefits of postsecondary education
• Increase in students employability value
  added the value that is added to students
  capabilities and knowledge as a consequence of
  their education at a particular college or
  university.

31
Factors for the Increase inPublic Demand for
Accountability

• Human resource development and knowledge-based
  economy
• Non-financial value to individuals, society and
  the nation
• Postsecondary education can contribute to
  enhanced cultural integrity, tolerance, and
  respect, which are all highly valued in the
  global society

32
The Big Questions of Quality

• Some of the questions
• How do higher education institutions satisfying
  stakeholders demands on their education?
• What is the role of quality management?
• What factors exert influence on higher education
  institutions?
• Through what kind of mechanisms do higher
  education institutions react?
• What are the effects of the reactions taken by
  higher education institutions?
• Is/Are there any model(s) suitable for higher
  education institutions?

33
The Pressures

• Some of the pressures
• State of uncertainty faced by educational
  leaders.
• Expectations for greater performance in a climate
  of increase financial accountability.
• The existence of alternatives to public education
  providers.
• The expectation on universities as change agent.
• 1990s has been the decade of quality in higher
  education (changes in approaches to achieve
  quality in higher education).
• External quality monitoring and procedures.

34
Quality Concepts

• What is quality?
• In simple form quality answers two questions
  What is wanted? and How do we do it?
• Quality means staying in business.
• Quality means optimizing the whole system of
  value exchange.
• Two dominant meanings of quality
• Quality consists of those products features,
  which meet the needs of customers, hence provides
  product satisfaction.
• Quality consists of freedom from deficiencies.
• (Janakiraman Gopal, 2007, p.2)

35
Quality Management System (QMS)

• Quality
• An expectation of other products and services we
  all use.
• A product or service delivered to a very high
  specification at a very high price, only
  accessible to customers or clients who have high
  incomes and wealth
• The totality of features and characteristics of
  a product or service that bear on its ability to
  satisfy stated or implied needs
• Ability of a set of inherent characteristics of
  a product, process/system to fulfill requirements
  of customers and other interested parties
  (ISO90012000)
• Quality Management System
• Well documented system that ensures consistency
  and improvement of working practices, including
  products and services produced.

36
Quality Management (QM)

• Quality management (QM) refers to structures
  within a higher education institution that assist
  in the management of quality issues (Luxton,
  2005).
• Quality improvement (refers to process) is
  concerned with an ongoing cycle of agreeing on a
  set of standards and/or goals, gathering relevant
  information, evaluating feedback and ensuring the
  implementation of change.

37
Various Definitions of Quality

• Fitness for purpose or use - Juran
• Conformance to requirements Crosby
• Total composite of product and services
  characteristics of marketing, engineering,
  manufacturing and maintenance through which the
  product and service in use will meet the
  expectation by the customer Feigenbaum
• Should be aimed at the needs of the customers,
  present and future Deming
• The degree of excellence at an acceptance price
  and control of variability at an acceptable cost
  - Broh

38
Various Definitions of Quality

• The totality of features and characteristics of a
  product or service that bear on its ability to
  satisfy stated or implied needs ISO 840
  Quality vocabulary
• Meets the requirements of customers, both
  internal and external, the organization for
  defect-free product, services and business
  processes IBM
• Quality as exceptional (Lee Diana, 1993)
  something special, distinctive, excellent
  (exceeding very high standards), passing a set of
  required standards.

39
Quality as something special

• Quality as special refers the traditional view of
  quality.
• Implies the exclusiveness or the elitist view.
• It is judged based on distinctiveness
  (unattainable for most people).
• Education provided by Cambridge, Oxford, Yale,
  Harvard is always viewed as something special.

40
Quality as excellence

• Only possible in limited circumstances.
• The best is required if excellent is what you
  want.
• A lecture by a Nobel Prize Winner is an example
  of quality excellence.
• Ivory towers universities are status given only
  to those widely reputable universities in the USA
  and UK.
• Institutions that take only the best students is
  an example of quality in terms of input and
  output.

41
Quality as fitness for purpose

• Ensures products or services meet the
  specifications of the customers.
• Quality products meet the customers requirements.
• For HEI, is the system providing the right number
  of required workforce?
• Is the course providing the right balance of
  knowledge, skills and understanding?
• How about the degree offered by universities?
• Who actually are the customers in HEI?

42
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Defining Quality in Higher education

• Defining quality is a challenging task (Becket
  Brookes, 2006)
• What is meant by quality?
• Basic concepts
• Continuous improvement an ongoing effort to
  improve products, services or processes.
  Incremental improvement
• Four step quality model plan-do-check-act
  (PDCA) cycle
• Cost of quality (COQ) the cost of not creating
  a quality product or service. Isnt the price of
  creating a quality product.
• Quality costs are the total cost incurred by
  investing in the prevention of non-conformance to
  requirements, failing to meet requirements.

43
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Defining Quality in Higher education

• Harvey Knight (1996)
• Quality can be broken into five dimensions
• Quality as exceptional (high standards)
• Quality as consistency (zero defects)
• Quality as fitness for purpose (fitting customer
  specifications)
• Quality as value for money (efficiency and
  effectiveness)
• Quality as transformative (an ongoing process
  that includes empowerment and enhancement of
  customer satisfaction)

44
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Defining Quality in Higher education

• Campell Rozsnayi (2002)
• Quality can be defined as
• Quality as excellence (goal to be the best)
• Quality as zero errors
• Quality as fitness for purpose (fitting customer
  specifications)
• Quality as transformation (an ongoing process
  that includes empowering students with skills,
  knowledge and attitudes which enable them to live
  and work in the k-society)
• Quality as threshold (setting certain norms and
  criteria)
• Quality as value for money (accountability)
• Quality as enhancement or improvement (pursuit of
  continuous improvement)

45
Eight Dimensions of Quality

• Performance
• The primary operating characteristics of a
  product. An example is about television, should
  have clear sound, picture, colour and able to
  receive distant stations.
• Features
• Secondary characteristics of products that
  supplement the basic functioning of the products.
  An example would be automatic tuners on a colour
  tv and power steering in a car.

46
Eight Dimensions of Quality

• Reliability
• It reflects the probability of a product failing
  within a specified period of time.
• Conformance
• The degree to which product design and operating
  characteristics match pre-established standards.
  
• Durability
• A measure of product life the period of use one
  gets from a product before it physically
  deteriorates.

47
Eight Dimensions of Quality

• Serviceability
• The speed, competency and efficiency of repair
  the elapsed time before service is restored.
• Aesthetics
• How a product looks, feels, sounds, tastes or
  smells.
• Perceived quality
• Indirect measures when comparing brands on
  products attributes.

48
Determinants of Service Quality

• Reliability
• Involves consistency of performance and
  dependability. The performance of service should
  be right the first time and provider honours
  promises. It must ensure accuracy in billing,
  keeping records correctly and performing the
  service at the designated time.
• Responsiveness
• Concerns the willingness or readiness of
  employees to provide service (timeliness of
  service, giving prompt service).

49
Determinants of Service Quality

• Competence
• Possessing the required skills and knowledge to
  perform the service.
• Access
• Involves approachability and ease of contact
  (accessible by phone, convenient hours of
  operation, convenient location of service
  facility).
• Courtesy
• Involves politeness, respect, consideration, and
  friendliness of contact personnel.

50
Determinants of Service Quality

• Communication
• Keeping customers informed in the language they
  can understand (explain the service, how much is
  the cost, trade-off between service and cost,
  problem will be handled).
• Credibility
• Involves trustworthiness, believability and
  honesty.
• Security
• The freedom from danger, risk or doubt (physical
  safety, confidentiality).

51
Determinants of Service Quality

• Understanding / knowing the customer
• Making the efforts to understand the needs of the
  customer (learning customers specific
  requirements, providing individual attention,
  recognizing regular customer).
• Tangibility
• Includes the physical evidences of the service
  such as physical facilities, appearance of
  personnel, other customers in the service
  facility).

52
Why is Quality Important to HEI?

• Four assumptions reflect the environment of HEI
• Conditions and conventions within the environment
  are changing
• Changes are faster than in the past
• Changes will continue to rapidly occur in the
  21st century
• Changes are essential and their implications to
  HEIs must be anticipated (Lewis Smith, 1994)
• If in companies quality leads to efficiency and
  profitability, in HEIs it leads to better
  learning and experiences on the parts of students

53
Factors affecting the assumptions whether HEIs
are quality driven

• The perception of quality in HE is becoming a
  problem for many outside the HEIs.
• Economic conditions have generated increasing
  concern about career opportunities and economic
  well-being.
• General public is increasingly concern about
  access to HE as a mean towards employment and
  economic security.
• Students, parents, legislators and employers have
  increasing expectations on HEIs and willing to
  commit funds to evaluate the performance of HEIs.
• Decreased in trust on institutions of higher
  education.
• (Lewis Smith, 1994)

54
Characteristics of HEI that focus on quality

• Open culture to constructive evaluation and
  to change.
• High level of satisfaction from students,
  employees and external customers.
• Institution-wide embracing of the concept of
  quality improvement,
• including commitment to participate in
  institutional improvement and growth.
• Measurable improvement in institutional
  performance in agreed areas of need.
• Open communication within and between different
  areas of operation.
• Self-confidence of the institution in its ability
  to manage its own
• future, and evidence of its success in doing
  so, particularly in relation to any external
  accreditation bodies.

55
Some Questions on Quality

• What are the determinants of quality?
• Differentiate between service quality and product
  quality.
• How globalization affect quality?
• What dimension of service quality is more
  critical in education service?

56
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Quality Management in Higher education

• Issue of quality management agenda of HEIs
• Higher education is viewed as international
  business
• Forces for effective quality management
• Growing concern on accountability
• An expansion of student populations
• Diverse student population
• Diminishing resources
• Increasing competitive nature of higher education
• Greater expectations of students as paying
  customers
• More flexible provision of higher education
• Increase collaborative provision between
  institutions

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Drivers of change in Higher education

• Political forces
• Government initiatives to widen access
• Government development of more HEIs
• Government control over curriculum and management
• No unified or centralized system for government
  control
• Economic forces
• Reduced or limited funding per student
• Reliance on private sector funding
• Reliance on international student fees
• Rising cost per student
• Increase in number of private HEIs
• Greater emphasis on internationalization

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Drivers of change in Higher education

• Socio-cultural forces
• Greater demand for student places
• Greater diversity of student population
• Greater diversity of provision
• Consumer pressure for greater accountability or
  value for money
• Source Brookes Becket, 2006

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Drivers of change in Higher education
Access and diversity The democratization of
higher education through financial assistance,
affirmative action, employer expectations for
educational credentials, and etc. Technology and
distance learning Technology has allowed for the
expansion of distance learning, E-learning
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Drivers of change in Higher education
Assessment Accountability to the public,
governing boards, accrediting agencies, and
etc. Growing emphasis on teaching and learning
issues Student-Centered Learning (SCL) Teaching
vs. research What are the basic
missions? Privatization Privatization was an
emerging trend Student housing, management
information system and etc.
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Drivers of change in Higher education
Emphasizing career preparations over liberal
education A trend to emphasize specific career
preparation over a quality liberal
education Rising costs and changing finances The
economic of higher education Commercialization Un
iversity becomes more entrepreneurial and enter
new markets The impact of corporate values
Corporate colleges/university alliances or
collaboration
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Key quality management dimensions

• Comprehensive audit tool as suggested
• Internal and external stakeholder perspectives
• Education as a system of inputs, processes and
  outputs
• Different quality dimensions - conceptualization
• Qualitative versus quantitative
• Quality snapshot or longitudinal benchmarking
• Quality assurance or quality enhancement
• Source Brookes Becket, 2006

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Higher education in South-East Asia

• An overview of higher education in South East
  Asia.
• Higher education is greatly influenced by the
  countries historical past, nation-building
  efforts, and current global trends.
• Among the less-developed countries, higher
  education systems are chronically under-funded
  and face escalating demand, under qualified
  academic staff, poorly planned curricula.
• Higher education systems face similar problems
  and challenges have budgets to balance,
  faculties to satisfy, social demands to meet.

64
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Massification of Higher education in South-East
Asia

• Massification reflects developments and trends in
  higher education reform to increase access.
• Transforming higher education systems from being
  elitist to ensuring mass participation across
  different social, income and geographical groups.
• Some countries have achieved significant
  increases in participation rates and tackled
  social exclusion.
• Escalating demand was brought about by population
  growth, democratization of secondary education,
  growing affluence, social mobility.

65
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Massification of Higher education in South-East
Asia

• At the national level, it is a key instrument for
  human capital development to sustain economic
  growth, restructure society, promote national
  unity.
• Higher education to maintain the countries
  competitiveness in a globalized knowledge economy
  (Malaysia, Singapore).

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Expansion of Higher education by gross enrolment
ratios ()
Country 1965 1975 1985 1995 2000 Singapore 10 9
12 34 na Thailand 2 4 20 20 32 Philippines 19 1
8 38 30 30 Malaysia 2 3 6 11 23 Indonesia 3 2 7
11 na Brunei na na na 7 14 Vietnam na na na 4 1
0 Myanmar 1 2 na 6 8 Cambodia na na na 2 3 Lao
PDR na na na 2 3
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Diversification of Higher education

• Various types of higher education institutions
  have emerged with different missions or purposes.
• Many countries witness rapid expansion of private
  sector.
• Levels of differentiation - traditional teaching
  and research universities, virtual universities,
  polytechnics, technical institutes, open learning
  institutes, community colleges.
• Higher education runs by for-profit corporations,
  non-profit organizations and religious bodies.
• Open and distance learning universities and
  regional universities widening participation and
  access to HE.
• Trend towards transnational education has been
  noted , Malaysia one of the most developed and
  experienced in the region.

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Internationalization of Higher Education

• Mobility of students and academics around the
  world have become common.
• The increasing development of foreign branch
  campuses reveals that HE can be exported to give
  access to students who otherwise may not be able
  to afford or obtain scholarship
• Transnational education is defined as any
  teaching or learning activity in which students
  are in a different country to that in which the
  institution providing education is based.
• Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam are importers of
  transnational education from Australia, UK.
• Some countries have national objectives to become
  educational hubs in the region.

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Marketization of Higher Education

• The rapid expansion calls for restructuring of HE
  involving privatization of HE, corporatization of
  public universities, implementation of student
  fees and formation of strategic partnerships
  between public and private sectors.
• Market forces led to more entrepreneurial
  universities whereby universities market their
  teaching, research and other knowledge-based
  services as well as setting up commercial
  enterprises or joint ventures with business
  firms.
• The development of private HE expands enrolments
  in many countries. In Philippines and Indonesia
  the private HE outnumbered public HE.

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Implications on Institutions of Higher Education

• HEs become more bureaucratic and regulated to
  ensure consistency in the management of HE
  systems.
• HEs become more complex, creating a variety of
  institutions with different missions and
  scattered in different places.
• Many governments are reducing their public and
  social expenditure on universities. Universities
  need to seek alternative sources of funding.
• Universities need to be more market oriented,
  flexible and able to respond quickly to market
  signals and pressures. Academic leaders have to
  find ways to make their universities more
  entrepreneurial and autonomous.
• Limited resources have made stakeholders
  including the state to be more concerned with the
  quality of education.

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Implications on Institutions of Higher Education

• Universities are increasingly subject to external
  pressures to achieve greater accountability for
  their performances, and are encouraged to develop
  systems for self-evaluation and assessment.

Trading autonomy for accountability

• States and universities are constantly redefining
  their interactions and relationships.
• An increase in autonomy is coupled with more
  accountability.
• Restructuring has led to changes in governance
  and management.

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Changing academic profession

• Academics are subjected to more rules and
  regulations, tighter control to increase
  productivity, more rules and regulations,
  rigorous assessment procedures.
• The development of corporate culture has required
  academics to behave like entrepreneurs and to
  market their expertise, services and research
  findings.
• Academic freedom in some countries remains
  limited on what can be researched and what can be
  disseminated to public.

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Future developments and challenges

• Continuing expansion of universities.
• Universities need to seek different sources of
  funding.
• Growing diversity of higher education
  institutions.
• More calls for institutional autonomy, financial
  diversification and quality control will be made.
• Greater pressure for relevance and flexibility
  curriculum development and adaptability to
  changes in the society.
• The emergence of multiple competitors as
  knowledge disseminator from corporate
  universities, research institutes, industrial
  laboratories, think tanks and consultancies.
• Universities have to promote multiculturalism and
  universal values.