Aurangzeb (Alamgir), 1658/9-1707

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Aurangzeb (Alamgir), 1658/9-1707
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Factions in Shah Jahans Court
(switches sides To Shuja)
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Succession Struggle of 1658
Dara Shukoh
Murad Baksh
Mhmd. Shuja
Aurangzeb
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The 1658-9 War of Succession

• Aurangzeb moves north, keeping track of changes
  at court via Princess Raushan Ara
• Murad forcibly takes treasury in West, agrees to
  a compact with Aurangzeb
• Aurangzeb and Murads forces defeat the Imperial
  Army under Jaswant Singh Rathor, Feb, 1658Same
  month Sulaiman Shukoh defeats the Bengal army of
  Shuja
• By June, Aurangzeb triumphs over brothers.

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Wrapping up loose ends

• Jaswant Singh Rathor defects to Shuja, who had
  retreated east. Both are defeated, but Shuja
  will continue to resist till 1660 in the east.
• Murad Baksh taken prisoner in June, 1658, will be
  tried for murder, ex. In 1661.
• Dara captured in summer of 1659, put on trial for
  apostasy and idolatry, executed.

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Impact of Succession Struggle, 1658-59

• Nobility picked different sidesAurangzeb
  continued to hold suspicions about Jaswant Singh
  and supporters of Darasuch as the Sikh Guru, Har
  Rai
• Much disruption in the collection of revenue for
  two yearspossible impact on peasants a cause of
  debate
• Imperial wealth spent ends up in hands of
  peasants and soldiers
• Continued imprisonment of Shah Jahan leads to
  criticism by Safavid Emperor and the guardian of
  Mecca. Allegations made about Aurangzebs
  morality.
• Allies and nobility view new emperor with
  trepidation

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The polarization of history

• Aurangzebs period has become polarized and
  mythologized
• Some myths
• Banned music, painting, etc at court
• Actively discriminated against all non-Muslims
• Tried to create an Islamic theocracy

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Same cautionary remarks

• Important to view Aurangzebs policies as rising
  out of complex motivations and factors, not
  merely due to his personality
• Sources from secondary literature (particularly
  older ones) are highly suspect, since 19th-20th
  c. was marked by Hindu-Muslim tensions
• Crucial to see the changes in policy since the
  Emperors own attitudes towards Rajputs,
  Marathas, conversion, jizya changed over time
• An important dividing factor is the earlier part
  of the reign spent in the north v. later reign in
  Deccan (before and after 1681) retrenchment after
  1681.

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Early Campaigns, 1659-81

• 1661-63 Mir Jumlas campaign against Kuch Bihar
  and Ahoms
• 1667-75 Afghan tribes rebel Afridis, Yusufzai,
  Khataks
• 1678-79 rebellion in Mewar and Marwar
• 1681 Prince Akbars rebellion
• Continuing trouble with Marathas forces Aurganzeb
  to leave for the Deccan

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Afghan revolts contained Incentives offered
Pay tribute, but Not annexed
Ongoing Rebellion From 1650s on For
Marathas, After 1678 for Rajputs
Eastern Border secured
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Important shifts in Religious Policy

• 1659 office of Muhtasib created
• 1665 differential taxes for Hindu and Muslim
  traders imposed, but only sporadically enforced
• 1669 official histories discontinued, order for
  temples clarified
• 1672 Hindu religious grants resumed
• 1675 Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur executed
• 1679 Jizya reimposed (revoked in 1704/deccan)
• 1690 land grants to Muslim ulema made heriditary

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Problems of Enforcement

• Aurangzebs own application of these laws was
  inconsistentex. Support of non-muslim religious
  establishments/figures
• Mansabdars flooded the Emperor with protests,
  applications for the reduction/revocation of
  taxes or simply did not comply in some areas
• Jizya was revoked in the Deccan in 1704
• Aurangzebs personal bigotry is undeniable
  however, his policy shifts also seem to be in
  response to key events at times

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Rajputs and Aurangzeb

• Some of the contradictions in these policies is
  clearer in the case of the Rajputs
• Jaswant Singhs conduct in 1658-59 and later as
  an ally of Shivaji put him under suspicion
• Rajput officers were exempted from the Jizya
• Aurangzeb continued to patronize and support
  other Rajputs during the war with Mewar/Marwar.
  Raja Jai Singh was entrusted with the Deccan
  Campaign until 1666.

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The Marwar-Mewar Rebellion

• Has longer subtextJaswant Singh was a younger
  son who gained the throne of Marwar due to Shah
  Jahans patronage
• His behavior during 1658-59 aroused Aurangzebs
  suspicions, upon his death in 1678, Aurangzeb
  tried to manipulate succession and failed.
• The Marwar and Mewar clans rallied around the
  infant Ajit Singh, guerilla warfare begins
• Mughal army subdues urban areas, dynastic temples
  are destroyed, tensions are aggravated
• Prince Akbar joins Rajputs, criticizes policies
• Rebellion contained, but trust of two major clans
  broken

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Pressure from Marathas

• The Emperors growing frustrations with the
  Maratha insurgency had an impact on both
  administrative and religious policies
• During suc. Struggle of 1658-59 Shivaji and
  allies capture forts on the Konkan coast
• Raid Deccani and Mughal territory demanding
  revenue
• 1664 Shivaji raids Surat
• Captured by Jai Singh in 1665, escapes in 1666
• 1667 raids Surat again
• 1680 Shivaji dies, sons and wives fight over
  succession

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Maratha Advantages

• Clan-based confederacy, with tight links to local
  peasants, Bijapur
• Bases in remote fortresses in Western Ghat hills
• Use guerilla tactics, not conventional warfare
• Use money from raids and piracy to create revenue

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How are we to assess this early period?

• Keep in mind that despite dramatic political
  events the revenue system in fact continued to
  expand and be reformed under Aurangzeb
• Greater urban expansion necessitated a change in
  taxation and administrative systemsmerchants had
  been lightly taxed till now
• Despite battles the bulk of the
  peasantryespecially khud kasht peasants and
  pioneering zamindars continued to profit from
  economic expansion
• Their success, in fact, was both beneficial and
  problematic for the empireWhy?
• Emperor needed greater cooperation from
  administrative officials to capitalize on these
  expansionsyet ran into political problems due to
  clumsy policies

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How did Aurangzeb fail to build support?

• It is not clear if Aurangzeb always understood
  the complicated power-sharing between Hindus and
  Muslims
• Bijapur Sultanate and Marathas
• Arrangement between Hindu financiers and Muslim
  pioneer farmers in Bengal, an example also found
  elsewhere
• Attitudes of a mixed nobility towards an
  increasingly hybridized culture
• Reactions to Imperial policy were unexpectedmany
  Muslim mansabdars critical of these shifts
• Hindus continue to join system, largest numbers
  by end of Aurangzebs rule