BA4135 LEADERSHIP THEORY

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BA4135 LEADERSHIP THEORY APPLICATION

• Professor Pinar Acar

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Course Rules

• Professionalism Courtesy Score
• 5 of letter grade
• Attend every class
• Come and leave on time
• Professional and mature behavior in class
• No cell phones

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Assignments

• One project
• Groups of 2 or individually
• Letter grades will be adjusted according to peer
  evaluations
• One simulation
• individual

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In-class Exercises Cases

• Do advance reading of textbook material
• Read the assigned cases and prepare the
  discussion questions
• Be prepared to make informal presentations to
  class
• Use relevant concepts and theories

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Other Policies

• No make-up exam
• Denying credit to students that fall short of
  acceptable performance level
• Plagiarism
• Information sheets - Mar4
• Peer evaluation last week

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Agenda

• Defining leadership
• Identify why leadership is important
• Discuss leadership effectiveness
• Discuss if leaders are born or made
• Discuss managerial roles
• Identify major approaches to leadership

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Why is leadership important?

• Do leaders make a difference?
• Is leadership only about CEOs of large companies?
• Are leaders born or made?

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Defining Leadership

• Leadership is the influencing process of leaders
  and followers to achieve shared objectives
• Leaders Follower
• Context Formal organizations
• Influencing The process of communicating ideas,
  gaining acceptance of them, and motivating others
  to support and implement them.

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Leadership Effectiveness

• Performance and goal achievement
• Follower attitudes
• Smooth internal processes
• External adaptability

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Approaches to Leadership

• Trait approach
• Behavior approach
• Power-Influence approach
• Situational approach
• Integrative approach

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Chapter 3

• The Nature of Managerial Work

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Agenda

• Understand the typical activity patterns for
  people in managerial positions
• Understand the different roles required for
  managers
• Understand how managers cope with the demands,
  constraints, and choices confronting them
• Understand how managers can make effective use of
  their time

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Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work

• Pace of work is hectic and unrelenting
• Content of work is varied and fragmented
• Many activities are reactive
• Interactions often involve peers and outsiders

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Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work
(Cont.)

• Many interactions involve oral communication
• Decision processes are disorderly and political
• Most planning is informal and adaptive

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The Content of Managerial Work

• Job description research
• Supervising
• Planning and organizing
• Decision making
• Monitoring indicators
• Controlling
• Representing
• Coordinating
• Consulting
• Administering

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Mintzbergs Managerial Roles
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Managerial Roles

• Described by Mintzberg.
• A role is a set of specific tasks a person
  performs because of the position they hold.
• There are 3 broad role categories
• 1. Interpersonal
• 2. Informational
• 3. Decisional

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Interpersonal Roles

• Roles managers assume to coordinate and interact
  with employees and provide direction to the
  organization.
• Figurehead role symbolizes the organization and
  what it is trying to achieve.
• Leader role train, counsel, mentor and encourage
  high employee performance.
• Liaison role link and coordinate people inside
  and outside the organization to help achieve
  goals.

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Informational Roles

• Associated with the tasks needed to obtain and
  transmit information for management of the
  organization.
• Monitor role analyzes information from both the
  internal and external environment.
• Disseminator role manager transmits information
  to influence attitudes and behavior of employees.
• Spokesperson role use of information to
  positively influence the way people in and out of
  the organization respond to it.

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Decisional Roles

• Associated with the methods managers use to plan
  strategy and utilize resources to achieve goals.
• Entrepreneur role deciding upon new projects or
  programs to initiate and invest.
• Disturbance handler role assume responsibility
  for handling an unexpected event or crisis.
• Resource allocator role assign resources between
  functions and divisions, set budgets of lower
  managers.
• Negotiator role seeks to negotiate solutions
  between other managers, unions, customers, or
  shareholders.

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Role Conflicts

• Role senders
• Role expectations
• Conflicting demands
• Perceptions of role requirements

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Unique Role RequirementsStewart (1967, 1976,
1982)

• Demands required duties, activities, and
  responsibilities
• Constraints limiting characteristics of the
  organization and external environment
• Choices activities that a manager may do but is
  not required to do

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Unique Role RequirementsSituational Determinants

• Pattern of relationships
• Work patterns
• Exposure

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Research on Situational Determinants

• Level of management
• Size of organizational unit
• Lateral interdependence
• Crisis situation
• Stage in the organizational life cycle

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Changes in the Nature of Managerial Work

• Economics, politics, and society
• Globalization
• New computer and telecommunications technology
• Structure of organizations
• Outsourcing and just-in-time inventories

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Time Management

• Applications for Managers

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Importance of objectives priorities
Daily Tasks
Intermediate Goals
Long-Range Goals
Personal Governing Values
Productivity Pyramid
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Time Mgt. Matrix
Importance (driven by values and goals)
Not Imp But Urgent
Imp Urgent
Urgency
Imp But Not Urgent
Neither Imp Nor Urgent
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Beating the time wasters

• Make a list of all the things you will do
  tomorrow.
• Prioritize each item in terms of A, B, and C.
• Take time to reclassify
• Make a list of all the time wasters that
  interfere with your ability to accomplish your
  long-term objectives.

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Sources of Problems in Time Mgt.

• Some normal human tendencies
• Prefer to do things that are interesting and
  pleasant
• Prefer to do things that are easy
• Tend to do things that are urgent
• Wait until just before a deadline
• Not aware of how time is used
• Equate activity with achievement

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Sources of Problems in Time Mgt.

• Some basic paradoxes
• Busy people cant find time to plan
• People who mostly respond to crisis insure they
  will recur
• People who cant delegate to inexperienced
  subordinates are unlikely to develop them
• People who find time to do things for others are
  likely to be asked to do even more things
• People who tend to leave things on their desk
  create clutter

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Common Time Wasters for Mgrs.

• Drop-in Visitors
• Telephone interruptions
• Cluttered office
• Unessential tasks
• Unnecessary or over-long meetings
• Causes
• Possible remedies
• Barriers
• Screening mechanisms
• Scheduling mechanisms
• Clarifying role expectations

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Other Causes

• Plan daily activities
• Make a to-do list and assign priorities
• Procrastination
• Perfectionism
• Analyzing activity patterns

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Managing Stress

• Stress causes a variety of ilnesses.
• Work-related effects.
• Stress is within the person.
• Perceptual and subjective
• A certain amount of stress is inevitable.

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Sources of Stress

• Individual differences
• Type A behavior pattern
• Stressful life situations
• Work-related stressors
• Work overload
• Time pressures
• Role conflict
• Office politics

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Strategies

• Remove yourself
• Alter the situation
• Teach yourself to respond differently
• Clarify your values
• Stress vaccine
• Create a personal support system
• Maintain good physical health
• Take energy breaks
• Perform relaxation techniques

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Proven Stress Reducers

• Get up 15 min earlier
• Prepare for the morning the evening before
• Do nothing which leads you to tell a lie
• Manage your time effectively
• Breathe right
• Make contingency plans
• Say no.
• Delegate responsibility
• Do one thing at a time

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Chapter 7

• Managerial Traits and Skills

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Terminology

• Personality The pattern of relatively enduring
  ways in which a person feels, thinks, and
  behaves.
• Trait A specific component of personality that
  describes particular tendencies a person has to
  feel, think, and act in certain ways.
• Values Convictions that a specific course of
  action or outcome is personally or socially
  preferable to an opposite or converse course of
  action or outcome.
• Needs Physiological or psychological
  deficiencies that people feel some compulsion to
  eliminate.
• Skill An ability to do something effectively

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The Big Five Model of Personality
6

• Surgency The tendency to experience positive
  emotional states and feel good about oneself and
  the world around.
• Neuroticism The tendency to experience negative
  emotional states and view oneself and the world
  around negatively.
• Agreeableness The tendency to get along well
  with others.
• Conscientiousness The extent to which a person
  is careful, scrupulous, and persevering.
• Openness to Experience The extent to which a
  person is original, has broad interests, and is
  willing to take risks.

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Insert Figure 2.3 here
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8
Insert Figure 2.4 here
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Why executives are derailed?

• Used a bullying style viewed as intimidating,
  insensitive, and abrasive
• Viewed as being cold, aloof, and arrogant
• Low emotional stability
• Were self-centered and viewed as overly ambitious
  and thinking of the next job
• Betrayed personal trust (low integrity)
• Defensive resistant to change
• Had specific performance problems with the
  business
• Overmanaged and were unable to delegate or build
  a team

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Traits of Effective Leaders

• Dominance
• High energy
• Self-confidence
• Integrity
• Flexibility
• Self-Confidence
• Emotional Stability
• Sensitivity to others
• Intelligence
• Internal locus of control

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Need for Achievement

• Doing better than competitors
• Attaining or surpassing a difficult goal
• Solving a complex problem
• Carrying out a challenging assignment
  successfully
• Developing a better way to do something

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Need for Power

• Influencing people to change their attitudes or
  behavior
• Controlling people and activities
• Being in a position of authority over others
• Gaining control over information and resources
• Defeating an opponent or enemy

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Need for Affiliation

• Being liked by many people
• Being accepted as part of a group or team
• Working with people who are friendly and
  cooperative
• Maintaining harmonious relationship and avoiding
  conflicts
• Participating in pleasant social activities

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Leader Motive Profile Theory

• Attempts to explain and predict leadership
  success based on a persons nAch, nPow. and nAff.
  LMP a high need for power which is socialized,
  a moderate need for achievement and a lower need
  for affiliation.
• Power socialized power
• Achievement
• Affiliation

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Agenda

• Research on effective leadership behavior
• Yukls taxonomy of leadership behaviors
• Consolidated products case
• Air Force Supply Squadron
• Identifying managerial practices
• Giving and receiving instructions
• Giving praise

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Effective Leadership Behavior
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Leadership Style

• The recurrent pattern of behaviors leaders use as
  they interact with followers.

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University of Iowa

• Autocratic leadership style
• Democratic leadership style
• Effective leaders are more democratic

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University of Michigan

• Job-centered leadership style
• Employee-centered leadership style
• Leadership functions can be carried out by others
  besides the formal leader.
• Indicated importance of participative leadership
  and group supervision

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Ohio State University

• 2 dimensions of leader behavior
• Initiating structure
• Consideration
• 4 leadership styles
• Abdicative leader
• Directive/autocratic leader
• Supportive leader
• Participative leader

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Blake Moutons Managerial Grid
High
Country Club Management
Team Management
Middle-of-the-Road Management
Concern for People
Authority-Compliance Management
Impoverished Management
Low
High
Low
Concern for Production
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Contributions

• Efforts to find one best leadership style was
  inconclusive
• There is no one best style that works in every
  situation
• Employees are more satisfied with a leader high
  on consideration/employee-centeredness
• Identification of the two generic dimensions of
  leadership behavior

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Yukls Taxonomy Managerial Practices
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Early Research

• Two broad categories of behavior
• Task-oriented behavior
• Relationship-oriented behavior
• Both types of behavior are necessary for
  effective management
• BUT it was not clear what managers actually do to
  accomplish task objectives and build effective
  interpersonal relationships

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Task-Oriented Behaviors

• Plans and defines work to be done
• Assigns tasks and responsibilities
• Sets clear work standards
• Urges task completion
• Monitors performance results

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Relationship-Oriented Behaviors

• Acts warm and supportive toward followers
• Develops social rapport with followers
• Respects the feelings of followers
• Is sensitive to followers needs
• Shows trust in followers

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14 Managerial Practices

• Planning and Organizing
• Problem Solving
• Monitoring Operations and Environment
• Motivating
• Recognizing
• Rewarding
• Informing

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14 Managerial Practices

• Clarifying Roles and Objectives
• Supporting
• Developing
• Consulting
• Delegating
• Team Building and Managing Conflict
• Networking

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Planning Organizing

• Decision making about what to do, how to do it,
  who will do it, and when it will be done.
• Purpose
• ensure efficiency and effective
• achieve coordination with other parts of
  orgnization
• adapting to external environment
• Many varieties
• design of organizational units structure
• design of individual jobs
• allocation of resources among different
  activities
• development of procedures

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Problem Solving

• Purpose To maintain orderly, stable operations
  at the current level of efficiency.
• Occurs in response to some immediate disturbance
  of normal operations
• Differences from planning
• Purpose
• Reactive
• Short-term
• Shorter duration
• Managers should not become too preoccupied with
  reacting to day-to-day problems.

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Monitoring Operations Environment

• Gathering information about
• Operations of work unit
• Progress of work
• Performance of subordinates
• Success of projects
• Nature of external environment
• Forms of monitoring
• Walking around
• Reading reports
• Meeting with subordinates
• Inspecting the work
• Getting reactions from customers
• Purpose To maintain the stability of operations
  and facilitate adjustments to changes in the
  external environment
• Closely related to planning and problem solving

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Informing

• Communication of relevant information needed by
  subordinates, peers, or superiors to perform
  their jobs and providing outsiders information
  about the organization to foster a favorable
  image.
• Forms
• Making an explanation in a meeting
• Calling someone on the phone
• Writing memos and reports
• Putting messages on the bulletin board
• Distributing a newsletter
• Relaying written materials
• Purpose To facilitate the work of others

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Clarifying Roles Objectives

• Communication of role expectations to
  subordinates and others who make an important
  contribution to work unit operations.
• Purpose To guide and orient work activity
• Forms
• Giving commands
• Making task assignments
• Explaining rules and procedures
• Explaining duties
• Explaining how to do a task
• Setting standards, goals, and deadlines
• Supervising
• Improves subordinate satisfaction and performance
  where there would otherwise be role ambiguity.
• Improves performance if involves clear, specific,
  and realistic performance goals.

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Motivating

• Use of influence techniques to generate
  enthusiasm for the work, commitment to task
  objectives, and complaince with orders and
  requests
• Directed at subordinates, peers, superiors, and
  outsiders
• Influence tactics
• Rational persuasion
• Inspirational appeals
• Role modeling
• Involves use of power
• Involves use of visioning speeches and symbolic
  actions

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Recognizing Rewarding

• Giving of tangible and intagnible rewards for
  effective performance, significant
  accomplishment, and helpful assistance.
• Directed at both subordinates and others
• Purpose To influence behavior and to increase
  satisfaction.
• Timely recognition and appropriate rewards are
  the key

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Supporting Developing

• Showing consideration, acceptance, and concern
  for the needs and feelings of other people.
• Developing is a subcategory
• Purpose To build and maintain effective
  interpersonal relationships and to increase job
  satisfaction

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Consulting Delegating

• Encouraging the participation of others in making
  decisions for which the manager is responsible.
• Examples
• Asking for suggestions
• Encouraging evaluation of proposals
• Inviting people to meetings
• Holding special meetings or hearings
• Asking subordinates to solve a problem with you
• Seeking group consensus for decisions
• Purpose To improve the quality and acceptance of
  decisions and to enrich jobs of subordinates.

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Team Building Managing Conflict

• Involves wide variety of behaviors involving
  development of teamwork and cooperation.
• Mediating conflicts between others
• Smoothing over disagreements
• Encouraging the constructive resolution of
  conflict
• Stressing the importance of cooperation
• Encouraging the sharing of information and ideas
• Using ceremonies and symbols to develop
  identification with organizational unit
• Facilitating social interaction among work unit
  members
• Purpose To maintain effective working
  relationships and to achieve a cohesive work
  unit.

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Networking

• Involves developing and maintaining contacts with
  people who are important sources of information
  and assistance, both within and outside of the
  organization.
• Examples
• Socializing and informal discussions
• Attending social and ceremonial events
• Participating recreational and leisure activities
• Joining professional associations or social clubs
• Offering assistance
• Doing favors that will be appreciated
• Providing helpful information
• It is important for managers to develop an
  extensive contacts with persons in other parts of
  the organization and with important outsiders.

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Giving Instructions

• Plan the message
• What is the goal of the message?
• Who should receive the message?
• How will you send the message?
• When will the message be sent?
• Where will the message be transmitted?

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Giving Instructions

• Be careful not to talk too fast
• Develop rapport
• State your communication objective
• Transmit your message
• Check understanding
• Get a commitment and follow-up

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Giving Instructions

• Written communication
• Set an objective and plan
• Keep the message short and simple
• Edit and rewrite where necessary

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Receiving Instructions

• Pay attention
• Avoid distractions
• Stay tuned
• Do not assume and interrupt
• Watch nonverbal cues
• Ask questions
• Take notes
• Convey meaning
• Analyze
• Check understanding

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Giving Praise

• The One-Minute Giving Praise Model (Blanchard
  Johnson)
• Tell the employee exactly what was done
  correctly.
• Tell the employee why the behavior is important.
• Stop for a moment of silence.
• Encourage repeat performance.

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Chapter 4

• Participative Leadership

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Types of Decision Procedures

• Autocratic Decision
• Consultation
• Group Decision
• Delegation

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Autocratic Decision

• The leader makes a decision alone without asking
  subordinates for their ideas and suggestions.
  Then, the leader tells them what was decided, and
  if necessary, explains the decision or tries to
  sell it.

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Consultation

• The leader explains the decision problem to
  subordinates and asks them for their ideas and
  suggestions. The leader may consult with
  subordinates individually or together as a group.
  Then the leader makes the final decision after
  careful consideration of their input.

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Group Decisions

• The leader meets with subordinates to discuss
  the decision problem and reach a decision that is
  acceptable to everyone or at least to a majority
  of group members. The leader runs the meeting
  but has no more influence over the final decision
  than any other group member.

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Delegation

• The leader gives an individual or group the
  authority and responsibility for making a
  decision.

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Criteria to Select Appropriate Procedure

• Decision Quality
• Decision Acceptance
• Time Needed to Make the Decision

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Decision Quality

• High- if the selected alternative is the best one
  among those available.
• Is decision quality an important issue?
• Distribution of relevant information and the
  extent to which it is possible to bring this info
  to bear on the decision solution
• Does the leader possess all the necessary
  information?
• Do the subordinates have the necessary
  information and problem solving skills?
• Is the problem clear-cut?
• Does the leader have necessary skills to use
  consultation and group decision making?
• Do the subordinates share the leaders
  objectives?

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Decision Acceptance

• The extent to which the persons who must
  implement the decision believe in it and are
  motivated to make it work.
• Is decision acceptance by subordinates important?
• Does the leader depend on the subordinates to
  implement the decision?
• Can acceptance be achieved with an autocratic
  decision?
• leader has good understanding of the subordinate
  preferences
• subordinates share the objectives of the leader
  and leader can persuade them
• the leader has the skills to persuade
  subordinates.
• subordinates loyal to the leader and believe in
  his/her expertise.
• If decision acceptance is unlikely with an
  autocratic decision, use a participative decision
  procedure.
• Group skills of the leader are important.

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Decision Time

• Immediate crisis
• Direct and overhead costs
• Lost opportunities
• Reach a decision as quickly as possible without
  jeopardizing decision quality and acceptance.
• Decision Time
• Autocratic - quickest
• Consultation - slower
• Group - slowest

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THE DECISION MODEL
Decision Acceptance
Not important or Assured w/ Autocratic
Important or Not Assured w/ Autocratic
Decision Quality
Qualit not Important
AUTOCRATIC
GROUP
GROUP if consistent goals
Quality important Leader has all info
AUTOCRATIC
CONSULTATION if inconsistent goals
GROUP if consistent goals
Quality important Leader does not have necessary
info
CONSULTATION
CONSULTATION if inconsistent goals
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Vroom-Jago Model

• Helps gauge the appropriate amount of
  participation for subordinates
• This model has five levels of leader
  participation styles ranging from highly
  autocratic to highly democratic.

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Vroom-Jago Model

• The diagnostic questions deal with
• The problem
• The required level of decision quality
• The importance of subordinates accepting the
  decision.

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Vroom-Jago Model

• Selecting a decision style allows a manager to
  adopt a participation style through a series of
  decision rules
• With decisions equally acceptable this model
  recommends the most autocratic style as it saves
  time and does not reduce quality of acceptance.

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Chapter 4 (Contd)

• Delegation

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To Delegate or Not to Delegate

• Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral
  Agree Strongly agree
• 1 2 3 4 5
• Most of the time subordinates are to
  inexperienced to do a job, so I prefer to do it
  myself._____
• It takes more time to explain the job than to do
  the job myself. _____
• Mistakes by subordinates are too costly, so I
  dont assign work to them. _____
• In my position, I get quicker action by doing a
  job myself rather than having a subordinate to do
  it. _____
• Some things simply should not be delegated. _____
• Many subordinates are detail specialists and lack
  the overall knowledge required for a job out of
  their specialty thus, they cannot be assigned
  additional job responsibilities. _____
• Subordinates are usually too busy to take on any
  more work. _____
• Most subordinates just arent ready to handle
  additional responsibilities. _____
• As a manager, I should be entitled to make my own
  decisions about my doing detail work rather than
  administrative work
• TOTAL _____

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Delegation

• Assignment of new responsibilities to
  subordinates and additional authority to carry
  them out.

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Varieties of Delegation

• The variety and magnitude of responsibilities.
• The amount of discretion or range of choice
  allowed in deciding how to carry out
  responsibilities.
• The authority to take action and implement
  decisions without prior approval.
• The frequency and nature of reporting
  requirements.
• The flow of performance information.

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Advantages of delegation

• Improved decision quality
• Increased commitment
• Job enrichment
• Subordinate development
• Efficient time management

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Reasons for lack of delegation

• Lack of confidence in subordinates
• Fear of being blamed for subordinates mistakes
• Strong for need power
• Subordinates have interdependent jobs
  Standardization is important
• Mistrust of subordinates

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What to Delegate?

• Tasks that can be done better by subordinates
• Tasks that are urgent but not high priority
• Tasks relevant to a subordinates career
• Tasks appropriate for subordinates ability
• Pleasant and unpleasant tasks
• Tasks not central to managers role

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What not to delegate

• Personnel matters
• Confidential activities
• Crises
• Tasks delegated to you personally

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How to Delegate

• Specify responsibilities and check for
  comprehension
• Provide adequate authority and specify limits of
  discretion
• Specify reporting requirements
• Ensure subordinates acceptance of
  responsibilities
• Inform others who need to know
• Monitor progress
• Arrange for the subordinate to receive necessary
  information
• Provide support and assistance, but avoid reverse
  delegation
• Make mistakes a learning experience

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Potential Pitfalls of Delegation

• Misunderstanding the assignment and the managers
  expectations.
• Feeling that assignment surpasses their ability
  and being embarrassed by failure.
• Not being given the authority to complete the
  assignment or the discretion to choose the manner
  of completion.
• Lack of time
• Assigning a lower priority than the one assigned
  to it by the manager
• Lack of motivation

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Delegation Model

• Explain the need for delgating and the reasons
  for selecting the employee.
• Set objectives that define responsibility, level
  of authority, and deadline.
• Develop a plan.
• Establish control checkpoints and hold employees
  accountable.

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Chapter 5

• The Dyadic Approach to Leadership

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Key Definitions

• Dyad A group of two.
• Dyadic The relationship between a leader and
  each follower in a work unit.
• Dyadic theory Approach to leadership that
  attempts to explain why leaders vary their
  behavior with different followers.
• Central idea A leader will form different
  relationships with different followers.

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Evolution of The Dyadic Approach

• Vertical Dyadic Linkage Theory (VDL) Leaders
  behaviors and traits have differential impact
  across followers creating in-groups and
  out-groups.
• Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX)
• Extension of VDL
• Focuses on the quality of the dyadic relationship
  and its effects on the organizational outcomes
  over time.
• Partnership/team building Leaders can create
  positive relationships with every subordinate.
• Systems and Networks Dyads can be created in all
  directions across levels and boundaries to build
  networks that enhance performance.

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Vertical Dyadic Linkage

• Emphasizes importance of the dyad formed by the
  leader with each subordinate.
• Leaders develop unique working relationships with
  each member and by so doing, they create
  in-groups and out-groups.
• Two kinds of relationships occur among leaders
  and followers in- and out-group.
• How does a leader create in-groups and
  out-groups?
• How do these relationships affect the types of
  power and influence tactics leaders use?
• By focusing on the relationship between a leader
  and each follower, VDL research found great
  variance of leader style and impact within a
  group of followers.

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In-Group vs. Out-Group

• Followers with strong social ties to their leader
  in a people-oriented relationship characterized
  by high mutual trust, exchange, loyalty, and
  influence.
• Leader uses expert, referent, and reward power.
• Leaders have more influence but cant use
  legitimate or coercive power
• Invited to decision making, given additional
  responsibility, have greater access to the
  leader.
• Experience mutual influence and collaborative
  effort
• Leader grants special favors
• Have certain obligations

• Followers with little or no social ties to the
  leader in a strictly task-oriented relationship
  characterized by low exchange, lack of trust and
  loyalty, and top-down influence.
• Leaders use reward, legitimate, and coercive
  power.
• Need only comply with formal role requirements.
• Such compliance leads to standard benefits for
  the job and no more.
• Managed according to the employment contract.
• Receive little inspiration, encouragement, or
  recognition
• Does not experience positive relationships

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory

• Extension of VDL
• Attempts to understand the quality of each dyadic
  relationship and its effects on organizational
  outcomes over time.
• What are the attributes of high-quality
  relationships?
• Which influential factors and leader behaviors
  enhance high quality leader-member exchange
  relationships?
• What are the effects of variance in the quality
  of relationships as revealed through research?
• To what extent does bias affect the quality of
  relationships between leaders and followers, and
  how does it influence their affective,
  behavioral, and organization-related performance?

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Attributes of High Quality LMX Relationships

• Greater levels of leader support and guidance,
  higher levels of follower satisfaction and
  performance, wide latitude of discretion for
  followers, and lower levels of follower turnover.
• A favorable relationship is more likely when the
  follower is perceived to be competent and
  dependable, and the followers values and
  attitudes are similar to those of the leader
• Impression Management A followers effort to
  project a favorable image in order to gain an
  immediate benefit or improve long-term
  relationships.
• Ingratiation Effort to appear supportive,
  appreciative, and respectful.
• Self-Promotion Effort to appear competent and
  dependable

113
Effects of High Quality LMX Relationships

• Performance ratings
• Turnover
• Ratings of organizational climate
• Job performance
• Benefits to the in-group member
• Benefits to the leader
• Obligations of the leader
• Obligations of the in-group member

114
Partnership Building

• Can leaders develop positive relationships with a
  large number of subordinates?
• Leaders can develop a unique, beneficial
  relationship with each subordinate and provide
  all employees with access to high quality
  leader-member exchanges.

115
Systems and Networks

• Leader dyads can be expanded to larger systems.
• Leaders should build networks of one-on-one
  relationships and create positive relationships
  with as many people as possible.

116
Followership
117
Definition

• One who subscribes to the teachings of another
  an attendant, servant or subordinate one who
  emulates or agrees with another one who accepts
  guidance or leadership of another (The American
  Heritage Dictionary).
• A follower is a person who is being influenced by
  a leader.
• Followership is an interactive role individuals
  play that complements the leadership role and is
  equivalent to it in importance for achieving
  organizational goals.
• Degree of enthusiasm, cooperation, effort, active
  participation, task competence, and critical
  thinking

118
Examples of Effective Followership

• Demonstrating job knowledge and competence while
  working without close supervision and completing
  tasks on time.
• Demonstrating independent critical thinking by
  developing ones own opinions and ideas that show
  inventiveness and creativity.
• Showing initiative in taking on responsibilities,
  participating actively, seeing tasks through to
  completion, and taking responsibility for ones
  own career development.
• Speaking up frequently to offer information,
  share viewpoints, or take issue with decisions or
  actions that may be unethical or ill-advised.
• Exerting influence on the leader to help the
  leader avoid costly mistakes.
• Demonstrating a concern for both performance and
  supportive friendly atmosphere within the work
  group.

119
Examples of Ineffective Followership

• Witholding effort
• Allowing someone else to make the decision for
  which they are responsible and readily do
  whatever they are told.
• Averting their eyes from wrongdoing rather than
  stopping it.
• Unwilling to disturb the status quo to do
  something worthwhile
• Expecting training and development to be served
  to them.

120
Follower Influencing Characteristics

• Follower power
• Expert power
• Referent power
• Position power information, location, access
• Follower locus of control
• Follower education and experience

121
How to be an effective follower?

• Offer support
• Take initiative
• Play counseling and coaching roles to the leader,
  when appropriate
• Raise issues/concerns when necessary
• Seek and encourage honest feedback from the
  leader
• Clarify your role and expectations

122
How to be an effective follower?

• Show appreciation
• Keep the leader informed
• Resist inappropriate influence of leader

123
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124
Attribution Theory, Biases, Self-Management
125
Attribution Theory

• Attribution how we explain other peoples
  behavior
• Is behavior internally or externally determined?
• External attributions external cause
• Sally has low performance because her machine is
  old
• Internal attributions internal cause
• Bill has low performance because he is lazy

126
External
127
Biases

• Fundamental Attribution Error Tendency to
  explain other peoples behavior with internal
  attributions and to underemphasize plausible
  situational causes of the behavior in question
• Self-Serving Bias The tendency to deny personal
  responsibility for poor performance but to accept
  personal responsibility for high performance when
  explaining our own behavior
• The type of exchange relationship influences the
  leaders interpretation of the followers
  behavior

128
Self-Management

• A set of strategies a person uses to influence
  and improve her behavior.
• See table 5-4 for a list of self-management
  strategies.
• Superleadership The process of developing
  self-leadership in others.

129
Some Suggestions for Effective Leader Feedback

• Take a supportive, problem solving approach
• Stay calm and professional
• Avoid a rush to judgment
• State the deficiency in specific terms
• Explain the negative impact of ineffective
  behavior
• Help the follower identify reasons for poor
  performance and suggest remedies for change
• Reach agreement on specific action plans
• Summarize the discussion and verify agreement

130
Monitoring and Reviewing Progress
131
Monitoring Reviewing Progress

• Involve gathering information about
• The progress of the work
• The success of projects or programs
• The performance of individual subordinates
• The quality of products or services
• The concerns of customers
• Changes in the external environment

132
When monitoring is insufficient

• Failure to detect problems before they become
  serious
• Declining quality
• Low productivity
• Employee dissatisfaction
• Customer dissatisfaction
• Projects behind schedules
• Customer preferences
• New technologies

133
When monitoring is insufficient

• Unable to provide recognition
• Unable to identify subordinates who need help
• Unable to evaluate performance of subordinates
• Unable to determine a sound basis to allocate
  rewards

134
Requirements for Effective Monitoring

• Network of contacts
• Organizational systems such as Information
  systems and control systems
• Formal goal setting programs such as MBO
• Good relations with subordinates

135
Monitoring is especially important if

• Subordinates are inexperienced and unskilled
• Mistakes and accidents would be expensive
• Task is difficult and complex
• Interdependence is high
• Disruptions are likely

136
Forms of Monitoring

• Observation
• Reading reports
• Inspecting quality of product samples
• Surveying customer/employees
• Holding meetings Progress review meetings

137
Progress Review Meetings

• Facilitate correction of performance problems
• Help a managers to determine if a a subordinate
  needs help
• Improve manager-subordinate communication
• Help assess if goals and plans are realistic

138
Progress Review Meetings

• Timing of meetings
• Preparation for meetings
• Identifying reasons for unsatisfactory progress
• Situational causes
• Deficiencies in subordinate skill or motivation

139
Procedures for Progress Review Meetings

• Review purpose and show enthusiasm
• Begin with a high priority goal
• Ask the subordinate to summarize progress on the
  goal
• Explore any disagreements about progress
• Explore reasons why progress is not on target
• Consider potential problems that could delay
  progress
• Ask the subordinate to suggest corrective actions
• Record level of progress and agreements on action
  steps
• Summarize the discussion

140
Chapter 6

• Power Influence

141
A Model of Power and Influence
Manager Power
Influence Behavior
Outcomes
Manager Skills
142
Outcomes of Influence Attempts

• Commitment Most successful the person is
  enthusiastic about carrying out the request and
  makes a maximum effort.
• Compliance Partially successful the person is
  apathetic about carrying out the request and
  makes only a minimal effort.
• Resistance Unsuccessful the person is opposed
  to carrying out the request and tries to avoid
  doing it.

143
Influence Processes

• Instrumental compliance Carries out the
  requested action to obtain a tangible reward or
  avoid a punishment controlled by the agent.
• Internalization Carries out the requested action
  because it appears to be intrinsically desirable
  and correct in relation to his values, beliefs,
  and self image.
• Personal identification Imitates the agents
  behavior or adopts the same attitudes to please
  the agent and to be like the agent.

144
Power

• The potential of one person (agent) to exert
  influence on another person (target).
• Stems from the dependency of the target person on
  the agent person
• Sources of Power
• Personal
• Position
• Determines whether influence attempts will be
  successful.

145
Position Power

• Legitimate Power The lawful right to make a
  decision and expect compliance.
• Reward Power The perception that the manager
  controls important rewards
• Coercive Power Power to punish for
  noncompliance.
• Information Power Control over access to and
  distribution of information.
• Ecological Power Control over the physical
  environment, technology, and organization of
  work.

146
Personal Power

• Expert Power Power stemming from specialized
  knowledge and skills.
• Referent Power Desire of others to please a
  manager toward whom they have a strong feelings
  of affection, admiration, and loyalty.

147
Influence Skills

• Diagnostic skills
• E.g. empathy, insight, social sensitivity
• Help select an appropriate influence tactic
• Analyze the situation and understand the motives
  and values of the target persons
• Execution skills
• Persuasiveness, decisiveness, bargaining ability,
  and acting ability

148
Influence Tactics

• Legitimating Tactic
• Rational Persuasion
• Exchange Tactic
• Personal Appeals
• Inspirational Appeal
• Consultation
• Pressure Tactic
• Coalition Tactic

149
Legitimating Tactics

• Request based on legitimate power
• Forms of behavior that establish the legitimacy
  of a request
• Providing evidence of prior precedent
• Showing consistency with organizational policies
• Showing consistency with the duties and
  responsibilities of the persons position
• Indicating that the request endorsed by higher
  management
• Usually results in minimal compliance

150
Rational Persuasion

• Involves use of expertise to present logical
  arguments, backed by factual evidence
• Appropriate when target person has compatible
  goals
• Identify target persons goals first
• Requires technical knowledge, being recognized as
  credible and trustworthy, and skills in
  persuasive speaking

151
Inspirational Appeal

• Attempt to arouse emotions as the mechanisms for
  motivating commitment
• Involves using target persons values and ideals
  to motivate him to do a task
• Requires insight into the values, hopes, and
  fears of the target person/s and communication
  skills
• Research on transformational leaders

152
Consultation

• Attempt to increase the motivation of a person by
  allowing him to participate in making the
  decision.
• Appropriate when the target has compatible goals

153
Exchange Tactics

• Involves the explicit or implicit offer of
  rewards for doing what is requested
• Appropriate when the target is indifferent or
  reluctant
• First identify which of the rewards controlled by
  you are desired by the target
• It may not be clear what rewards you control
• Maintain credibility
• Use incentive sparingly

154
Personal Appeals

• Involves asking s.o. to do a favor based on
  friendship or loyalty
• Requires considerable referent power and the
  request should be perceived as important to the
  manager
• Use sparingly
• Make an effort to maintain strong personal
  relationships

155
Ingratiation

• Involves behavior that makes s.o. feel better
  about you
• When sincere, strengthen friendship and provide a
  strong basis for influence

156
Pressure tactics

• Include coercion, intimidation, and pushy
  behavior
• Compliance is greatest if threat is seen credible
• Use as last resort serious side effects

157
Coalition Tactics

• Indirect influence attempt which involves getting
  the support of other people
• Coalition partners can be active or passive
• Can be used in combination with other tactics

158
New Tactics

• Collaboration Involves reducing the difficulty
  or costs of carrying out a request
• Apprising Involves explaining why a request is
  likely to benefit the target

159
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160
Chapter 8

• Contingency Theories

161
Contingency TheoriesWhen and under what
circumstances is a particular leadership style
preferable to others?

• There is no one best way to lead
• Leadership effectiveness f(leader, situation)
• Leaders are most effective when they make their
  behavior contingent upon situational forces.
• Goal To understand how different situations
  affect leadership success.

162
Contingency Theories

• Fielders Contingency Theory
• Path-Goal Theory
• Substitutes for Leadership
• Cognitive Resources Theory
• Multiple Linkage Model

163
Fiedler's Contingency Theory

• Assumption Good leadership depends on the match
  between leadership style and situational demands.
• Leadership style - Least-Preferred Coworker Scale
• Relationship-motivated leader is concerned with
  people
• OR
• Task-motivated leader is primarily motivated by
  task accomplishment.
• Leadership style is part of ones personality.
• Leadership Success lt Putting the styles to work
  in situations for which they are good fits.

164
Fiedlers Contingency Theory

• 1. Understanding the leadership style
• Determined by Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC)
  Scale.
• High LPC leader Tendency to a relationship-orient
  ed leadership style
• Low LPC leader Tendency to a task-oriented
  leadership style.
• 2. Diagnosing the leadership situation to
  identify the extent of control a situation allows
  a leader
• Quality of leader-member relations (good-poor)
• Degree of task structure (high-low)
• Amount of position power (strong-weak)

165
Fiedlers Contingency Theory

• 3. Matching the leadership style and the
  situation
• Neither the task-oriented nor the
  relationship-oriented style is effective all the
  time.
• A task-oriented leadership will be most
  successful in either very favorable or very
  unfavorable situations.
• A relationship-oriented leadership will be most
  successful in situations of moderate control

166
Fiedlers Contingency Model
167
Implications

• Improve leader-member relations
• Initiate structure
• Exercise more position power

168
Path-Goal Theory

• An effective leader clarifies paths through which
  subordinates can achieve goals and increases the
  rewards they value.
• Increasing Rewards The leader talks with
  subordinates to learn which rewards are important
  to them. Then, aligns these rewards with task
  accomplishment.
• Path Clarification The leader helps subordinates
  learn the behaviors that lead to task
  accomplishment and rewards.

169
Path Clarification
Increase Rewards
Leader defines what follower must to do attain
work outcomes
Leader learns followers needs
Leader matches followers needs to rewards if
work outcomes are accomplished
Leader clarifies followers work role
Follower has increased knowledge and
confidence to accomplish outcome
Leader increases value of work outcomes for
follower
Follower displays increased effort and motivation
Organizational work outcomes are accomplished
170
Path-Goal Theory

• Four leadership Styles
• Directive leadership Giving directions,
  scheduling their work, establishing performance
  standards.
• Supportive leadership Making work pleasant,
  being friendly, showing concern.
• Achievement-oriented leadership Setting
  challenging goals, displaying confidence,
  expecting high levels of performance from
  subordinates.
• Participative leadership Involving subordinates
  in decision making.
• Types of behavior that every leader can adopt
  depending on the situation.

171
Path-Goal Theory

• Choice depends on work environment task
  structure, formal authority and work group- and
  subordinates personal characteristics
  -authoritarianism, locus of control, ability.
• Managerial Implications
• Leaders should switch their behavior to match the
  situation.
• Managers must use the leadership style that
  complements the needs of the situation.
• Common Managerial Situations
• job assignments are unclear - Directive
  Leadership
• worker self-confidence is low - Supportive
  Leadership
• performance incentives are poor - Participative
  Leadership
• task challenge is insufficient -
  Achievement-Oriented Leadership

172
Substitutes for Leadership

• Aspects of the work setting and the people
  involved that can reduce the need of a leaders
  personal involvement or neutralize the effect of
  a leader.
• Organizational Variables
• Group cohesiveness
• Formalization
• Task characteristics
• Highly structured task
• Automatic feedback
• Intrinsic satisfaction

173
Substitutes for Leadership

• Subordinate characteristics
• Professionalism
• Training/experience

174
The Multiple Linkage Model

• Four types of variables
• Leader behavior
• Intervening variables
• Criterion variables
• Situational variables
• Focuses on the performance of a work group

175
Intervening Variables

• Task commitment
• Ability and role clarity
• Organization of the work
• Cooperation and mutual trust
• Resources and support
• External coordination

176
Key Ideas

• Intervening variables determine group
  performance.
• Group leader can increase/decrease group
  effectiveness through influencing intervening
  variables.
• Aspects of the situation influence the current
  level intervening variables independent of leader
  behavior.
• Leaders can improve group performance by
  correcting any deficiencies in the intervening
  variables.
• Leaders should make the conditions more favorable
  over the long-run.

177
Situational Variables

• Formal reward system
• Intrinsically motivating job
• Prior training and experience of subordinates
• Task structure
• Type of technology
• Competitive strategy
• Size of the group
• Group homogeneity
• Formal budget systems
• Inventory systems
• Organization structure

178
Leader Actions

• Offer special incentives
• Set specific goals
• Reorganize activities
• Build and emphasize common group identity
• Obtain needed resources
• Improve external coordination

179
Situational Variables - Neutralizers

• Leaders position power
• Organizational policies
• Technology
• Legal-contractual restrictions

180
Cognitive Resources Theory

• Do situations arise in which leaders
  intelligence and other cognitive abilities can be
  a disadvantage?
• How does stress impact a leaders effectiveness?
• Two leader characteristics intelligence and
  experience
• Contingency variable stress
• Propositions
• Leaders intelligence can contribute positively
  to group performance when the leader is
  directive.
• Stress moderates the relationship between
  intelligence and performance
• When the situation is not stressful, leaders
  intelligence is an asset .
• In times of high stress leaders intelligence can
  either detract from or have no impact on group
  performance.
• A leaders experience is positively related to
  group performance in high-stress situations but
  not in low-stress situations.
• Implication The role of stress in leadership
  situations must be considered.

181
Chapter 9

• Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

182
Contributions

• Look at different aspects of leaders
• Highlight the importance of followers emotions
• Focus on the leaders at top levels of
  organizations

183
Charisma

• Divine gift of grace
• Max Weber gt a type of influence based on
  exceptional qualities of an individual person
• heroic acts
• advocating revolutionary mission
• Today gtendowment of exceptional qualities and
  high self-esteem and referent power from
  followers.
• Definition A distinct social relationship
  between the leader and follower in which the
  leader presents a revolutionary idea or ideal
  which goes beyond the immediate or the
  reasonable while the followers accept this
  course of action not because of its rational