AP Biology Exam Review

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AP BiologyExam Review

• 60 multiple choice
• 40 free response

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Organizing life

• Atoms
• Molecules
• Organelles
• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
• Systems
• Organism species
• Population
• Community
• Ecosystem

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Experimental design free response

• Problem
• Hypothesis
• Materials/procedure
• Control setup/baseline
• Independent and dependent variables
• Constants variables
• Qualitative quantitative data
• Data interpretation
• Conclusion

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Hypothesis

• Predictive
• May propose a method for testing the problem.
• Give a justification for the method of testing.

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Properties of life

• Metabolism chemical pathways that are regulated
• Cellular organization
• Homeostasis maintaining stable internal
  environment through controlled chemical reactions
  or metabolism for life functions (pH,
  temperature, etc)

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Properties of life

• Reproduction capacity to develop from juvenile
  to adult stage with potential to replicate own
  DNA
• Asexual
• Sexual

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Properties of life

• Response to stimulus able to react to external
  or internal changes
• Many responses to stimulus are result of
  enzymatic proteins.

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Chemical evolution of life

• production of small, reduced, carbon-containing
  compounds like formaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide.
  
• simple compounds reacted in the ocean to form the
  mid-sized molecules called sugars, amino acids,
  and nitrogenous bases

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Chemical evolution of life

• building block molecules linked together to form
  molecules found in cells (proteins and nucleic
  acids)
• single molecule acquired the ability to make a
  copies of itself
• Chemical evolution began to give way to
  biological evolution.

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Covalent

• Sharing of electrons
• Stable
• Forms hydrocarbons

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Polar covalent bonds

• Water molecule
• Leads to different water properties

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Ionic bonds
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Hydrogen bonds

• Weak individually
• Strength in multiple H-bonds
• Found between nucleotides

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Chemical reactions
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Properties of water

• Slightly positive and negative poles of water
  molecule form hydrogen bonds

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Frozen water molecules less dense, ice floats
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Water as ideal solvent
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Water as ideal solvent

• Water soluble protein
• Attracts water molecules

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pH water dissociation
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pH scale

• Homeostatic control of pH (maintaining optimal pH
  levels) is necessary to sustain life.
• Ex pH drop in blood too much CO2

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Organic chemistry

• Alkanes hydrocarbons with only single bonds
  between C and H
• Alkenes hydrocarbons with double bonds between C
  and H
• Alkynes hydrocarbons with triple bonds between C
  and H

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Valence numbers

• Indicates the number of bonds that can be formed.

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Carbon structural molecules
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Isomers

• Molecules with the same molecular formula but
  different 3D configuration

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Functional groups
Alcohol Aldehyde Amine Carboxylic
acid Ester Ether Ketone Methyl Phosphate
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Polymers

• Most organic polymers form through dehydration
  synthesis.
• Most break apart by hydrolysis.

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Monosaccharides

• Single building block of sugars (carbohydrate)
• a-glucose, b-glucose, fructose

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Disaccharides
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Polysaccharides
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Polysaccharides

• Starch plant and algae storage, product of
  photosynthesis (a-glucose)
• Cellulose structural polymer, product of
  photosynthesis (b-glucose)

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Chitin

• carbohydrate with an additional amine functional
  group that makes this molecule tough and water
  resistant
• exoskeletons of many insects
• fungal cell wall

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Lipids

• Ester linkage
• Why is this a saturated fat?

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Lipids

• Energy storage
• Insoluble in water
• C and H

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Saturated vs. Unsaturated
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Lipids What is this structure?
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Lipids

• What are these structures?
• What proof is there that one of these structures
  makes up membranes?

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Lipids What is this structure?
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Proteins amino acid monomers
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Proteins amino acid monomers
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Proteins

• Primary conformation peptide bonds between amino
  acids
• Forms peptide chains

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Proteins

• Primary structure or conformation
• Notice the amino and the carboxyl terminus (ends)

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Proteins

• Secondary structure hydrogen bonds between
  peptide chains

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Proteins

• Tertiary structure R-group interactions, depends
  upon properties of R group

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Proteins Quaternary structure
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Protein denaturation

• What can denature proteins?

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How cells fix denatured proteins
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Nucleic acids

• Nucleic acids are built from monomers of
  nucleotides.
• Nucleotides are adenine, thymine, cytosine,
  guanine, uracil.
• Ex DNA, RNA, ATP, and GTP

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Nucleic acid

• DNA structure
• Notice the different types of bonds involved in
  the making of DNA

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DNA model

• Each nucleotide is made from deoxyribose sugar,
  phosphate, and nitrogen base.
• DNA is double stranded.

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Cells 10 of test

• Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• Membranes
• Subcellular organizations
• Cell cycle and its regulation

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Cell size

• Viruses not cells
• Bacteria, mitochondria, chloroplast all about the
  same size (evidence for endosymbiotic theory)

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Cell fractionation
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Prokaryotic cell
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Surface to volume ratio

• Governs size

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Membrane
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Eukaryotic animal cell
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Eukaryotic plant cell
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Freeze fracture

• Showing the mosaic of fluid mosaic model
• Singer and Nicholson
• Danielli proposed alternative model
  (protein-membrane-protein)

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Membrane fluidity
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Membrane structure
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Diffusion entropy
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Osmotic balance
Guard cells, excretory system, transpiration,
translocation
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Osmotic balance
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Sodium-potassium pump
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Transport

• Passive vs. active transport
• Passive osmosis
• Active transport establishing proton gradient of
  electron transport chain

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Proton pump auxin transport, electron transport
chain
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Cotransport

• Translocation (phloem source to sink)

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Cell cycle
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Mitosis lab

• 500 cells interphase 50
• 100 cells prophase 10
• 150 cells metaphase 15
• 150 cells anaphase 15
• 100 cells telophase 10

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Mitosis
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Mitosis
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Binary fission

• Asexual reproduction in prokaryotic cells
• Other examples of asexual reproduction budding,
  regeneration, vegetative propagation

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Cell cycle control

• Requires various checkpoints and Cdk
  (cyclin-dependent kinase) protein to detect
  levels of cyclin

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Density

• Density dependent cellular growth vs. density
  independent cancerous growth