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Twentieth-Century Political and Cultural Ferment

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Title: Twentieth-Century Political and Cultural Ferment

1
Chapter 14 Twentieth-Century Political and
Cultural Ferment
2

Independence Movements
The Arab World
British interest is military, political, and
strategic
Sherif Husayn agreed to revolt against the
Ottomans
Balfour Declaration, 1917, supports Zionists
Mandates under the League of Nations
France mandated Lebanon and Syria
Britain mandated Iraq, Jordan, Palestine
British sphere of influence over Arabian
Peninsula
Cairo Conference, 1921
Britain to use Arab leaders to rule

Egyptian revolt when refused independence, 1919
Limited independence under constitutional
monarchy, 1922
Conflicting demands of Zionists and Palestinians
in Palestine
Modernism versus tradition
Turkey
Mustafa Kemal, Atatürk, wished to westernizeas
rapidly as possible
Secular, constitutional state
Social changes
Iran
Reza Khan seized power, 1923
Modernization

Saudi Arabia
Influence of the Wahhabi
Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud commitment to an Islamic
state
Favors modernization
African Revolts
Failure of early west and south African revolts
North Africa
Abd al-Karim
Omar Mukhtar

African Political Organizations and Pan
Africanism
Negriturde
W.E.B. DuBois, African American
Racial, economic, political reforms
African independence
Blaise Daigne
Africans to achieve parity with Europeans in the
imperial network
Marcus Garvy, Jamaican
Back to Africa
National Congress of British West Africa
African National Congress
Afrikaners in South Africa

Mexico
Porfirio Diaz
Modernization at the expense of the masses
Exclusion of the middle class and urban workers
Large foreign infestment
Francisco Madero
Plan of San Luis Potosí
Emiliano Zapata
Plan of Ayala
Constitution of 1917
Institutional Revolutionary Party
Lázaro Cárdenas
Revolution slows down in the 1940s

7
East Asian Colonial Territories, 1840-1940 1.
Although European contacts with the East date
from the sixteenth century, there ware
restrictions. China limited western trade to
Canton-Maccao and the Japanese after 1639
restricted western commerce to only the Dutch who
were permitted one ship a year to an island off
the commercial port of Nagasaki. 2. Expanding at
the expense of the Ottomans, Russia occupied the
area of the Caspian Sea by 1881 and in 1885 was
in Turkistan. The appearance of the Russians on
the northern borders of Persia and Afghanistan
worried the British in India. In 1907 Britain
and Russia agreed to make Afghanistan a buffer
and divide Persia into two spheres of influence.
Likewise, French annexation of Indochina was
cause for Britain to take over Burma and expand
from Singapore to the Malay Peninsula. Because
Siam served as a buffer to the French and the
British, it remained independent. 3. Blocked by
the British in western Asia, Russia turned to
eastern Asia. By 1860 it had occupied Manchuria
but conflicting aspirations over Korea brought
war with Japan in 1904. Defeated in 1905, Russia
recognized Korea as a Japanese protectorate. 4.
The opening of China in the nineteenth century
was the result of the inability to withstand the
pressures of the West. Because the Europeans had
few products desired by China, there was a
significant imbalance of trade. This was
altered when Britain initiated commerce in
illegal opium from India. When the Chinese
tried to stop the trade in 1839, Britain went to
war. The peace in 1842 opened new ports and
forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain. Other
western states demanded similar concessions.
More ports were opened after military operations
by the French and British in 1858-1860. In 1860
China lost Manchuria to Russia and had to allow
France to establish a protectorate over
Indochina. Following the Sino-Japanese War
(1894-1895), Russia, Britain, France, Germany,
and Japan partitioned China into "spheres of
interest." Finally, in 1912 after an indigenous
uprising, the Manchu government fell and China
became a republic. 5. The presence of the United
States in Asia stemmed from opening Japan in
1853. American interest was peaked even further
in 1898 as a result of the Spanish-American War.
The defeat of Spain brought control over the
Philippine Islands and Guam. The Filipinos hoped
for independence but the United States had no
such intentions. An insurrection followed which
took three years and 60,000 troops to quell.
Independence would not come until July 4,
1946. 6. The westernization of Japan under the
Meiji led to adventures in imperialism. In the
Sine-Japanese War (1894-1895) victorious Japan
won Chinese recognition of Korean independence,
the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores Islands,
and the southern projection of Manchuria (though
eventually forced to give it up). Later, Japan
gained concessions in Fukien opposite Formosa.
After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Japan
annexed southern Sakhalin Island and gained
economic concessions in Manchuria. Questions 1.
Why was China unable to halt Western and Japanese
advance? 2. Why did Russia and Britain struggle
over Asia?
East Asian Colonial Territories, 1840-1940
8

Struggle for Independence in South and East Asia
India
British policy to suppress local practices cruel
and unjust
Promoted tolerance for all religions
Indian National Congress, 1885
All India Muslim League, 1905
Government of India Act, 1919
Mohandas K. Gandhi, Mahatma
Violence is wrong
Social reform
Civil disobedience
India Act, 1935

Mohammed Ali Jinnah
Separate identity for Muslims
Changing Indian Society
Population growth, low standard of living
Expanded economy
Advancing status of women
Southeast Asia
Burma (Myanmar) separated and granted limited
autonomy from India due to anti-British riots
Achmed Sukarno led nationalistic opposition in
the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)
Communist nationalist opposition in Vietnam

10
The Qing Empire in the Early Twentieth Century
1. The Qing dynasty from 1644 to 1912 generally
continued the political and social order of the
previous Ming (1368-1644). The ruling Manchus
originated in Manchuria from which the unifier of
the Manchu state, Nurhachi, seized part of the
Liaotung Peninsula and in 1625 made Mukden his
capital. Beijing, and thus the Chinese throne,
fell to the Manchus in 1644. 2. In the 1670s the
khan of the Dzungars, Galdan, in western Mongolia
extended his control over Chinese Turkestan
(Xinjiang) . When Galdan attacked the eastern
Mongols, China replied and in 1696 destroyed
Galdan's army. By the 1750s after years of
unsettled affairs, the Qing gained control
Dzungaria and Chinese Turkestan. 3. In subduing
the Western Mongols, the Qing were led to move on
Tibet since the Lamist church exercised influence
on both Tibetan life and the Mongols. In 1750 a
Qing protectorate with a garrison of 1500 men was
established. 4. Since the Manchus constituted
only two percent of the empire's entire
population, military forces were strategically
placed throughout the empire 25 posts around
Beijing strategic locations in the northwestern
frontier to prevent attacks from Central Asia
major population centers and at important
southern locations. Further protecting
themselves, the Manchus separated their homeland
from China and prohibited Chinese immigration in
1668. The Willow Palisade (a ditch with willows
planted along it) was extended from near where
the Great Wall begins in the east several hundred
miles to north of Mukden and then down the Yalu
River. 5. In the late eighteenth century
military campaigns brought tributary status to
Nepal, Burma, and Vietnam. Siam, Cambodia, Laos,
and Tonkin also paid tribute at various
times. 6. Between 1858 and 1860 Russia succeeded
in gaining by treaty the north bank of the Amur
River and jointly possessed with China the
territory between the Ussuri River and the sea.
The east coast of Manchuria remained unresolved
between Russia and China. Finally in 1860 a
treaty gave Russia the Maritime Provinces between
the Ussuri and the Pacific where Vladivostok was
founded in 1860. 7. By 1637 Korea had been made
a vassal state. In 1876 Japan forced China to
open three ports and declare Korea an independent
state. War broke out in 1895 over China's claim
on Korea. China's loss resulted in the
recognition of the independence of Korea and
handing over Liaotung Peninsula and Taiwan
(Formosa) to Japan. Question 1. How had the
Qing begun to contract by the end of the
nineteenth century?
The Qing Empire in the Early Twentieth Century
11

Chinese Nationalism
Sun Yat sen
Three Peoples Principles
Kuomintang
Chinese Republic established, 1911
Active warlords
Accepts support of the Soviet Union
Chiang Kai-shek
Chinese Communism
Mao Tse-tung
Peasants key to political power
Long March

12
The Northern Expedition 1. Revolutionary
Marxism had its greatest impact on the industrial
center of Shanghai where the Chinese Communist
Party (CCP) was founded in 1919. At the urging
of Comintern agents, the CCP formed an alliance
with the ruling Kuomintang Party (Nationalist) in
1923 to oppose the warlords and drive out foreign
powers in China. Meanwhile, in Canton, the CCP
was creating a communist led government within a
government. Communist influence was spreading in
the Kuomintang. In March 1926 Chiang Kai-Shek,
who had succeeded to the head of the Kuomintang
after Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, staged a coup
d'etat at Canton ousting part of the CCP
leadership. Chiang reaffirmed the Canton-Moscow
alliance. 2. The Northern Expedition had been
long in planning by Sun to smash the warlords and
unify China. It was launched in July 1926.
Preceded by trained propagandist, the army
advanced rapidly and by the time it reached the
Yangtze River had absorbed the armies of
thirty-four warlords. In 1927 the Northern
Expedition continued to press its successful take
over of central China. This included movement
down the Yangtze to seize the center of rice
production and the industrial base around
Shanghai. On April 12 Chiang's forces attacked
the Communists and their supporters in Shanghai
and killed thousands. Chaing then set up his own
government in Nanjing. Another Nationalist
Northern Expedition in 1928 occupied Peiking,
renaming it Peiping (Beijing, "Northern Peace").
By the end of 1928 the nationalist government had
received international recognition. 3. In
response to these events, Mao Zedong led an
insurrection in Hunan but it, like the revolt in
Canton, failed. The CCP leadership that was not
executed went underground or was forced into the
countryside. 4. In late 1926 the Nationalist
government moved from Canton to Wuhan. 5. After
1927 the CCP-Kuomintang alliance no longer
existed and Chiang was determined to root the
communists out of their base in Shanghai and
their rural redoubt in Jianxi province. By 1931
they were drawn out of Shanghai. Three years
later the communists were surrounded in Jianxi.
Abandoning their base in October 1934, Mao
Zedong's Young People's Liberation Army embarked
on the Long March. Moving swiftly on foot at
night over a period of one year and at distance
of 6000 miles, the journey ended at Yunan. Only
10,000 arrived at the final destination. Question
s 1. What was the purpose of the Northern
Expedition and what did it accomplish? 2. What
was the Long March and why was it necessary?
The Northern Expedition
13