Analyzing Arguments

1
Lecture 10

• Analyzing Arguments
• Summarizing Longer Arguments

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Summarizing Longer Arguments

• Purpose to provide a synopsis of the argument
  that accurately restates the main points in the
  summarizers own words.
• Standardization a method for summarizing longer
  arguments.
• Two important skills of argument analysis
• 1. paraphrasing, and
• 2. finding missing premises and
  conclusions.

3
Paraphrasing

• Paraphrase a detailed restatement of a passage
  using different words and phrases.
• A good paraphrase is
• Accurate
• Clear
• Concise
• Charitable

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A Good Paraphrase is Accurate

• Original
• Europe has a set of primary interests, which to
  us have none, or a very remote relation. Hence,
  she must be engaged in frequent controversies,
  the causes of which are essentially foreign to
  our concerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise
  in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties
  in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or
  the ordinary combinations and collisions of her
  friendship or enmities. (George Washington,
  Farewell Address, 1796)

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A Good Paraphrase is Accurate

• Paraphrase 1 Europes vital interests are
  totally different from ours. For this reason
  European nations will often become embroiled in
  conflicts that dont concern us. Therefore, we
  shouldnt become involved in Europes political
  affairs.
• Paraphrase 2 Europe has a set of vital interests
  that are of little or no concern to us. For this
  reason, European nations will often become
  embroiled in conflicts for reasons that dont
  concern us. Therefore, we shouldnt form
  artificial ties that would get us involved in the
  ordinary ups and downs of European politics.

6
A Good Paraphrase is Clear

• Original The patient exhibited symptoms of an
  edema in the occipital-parietal region and an
  abrasion on the left patella.
• Paraphrase The patient had a bump on the back
  of his head and a scrape on his left knee.
• Original High-quality learning environments are
  a necessary precondition for facilitation and
  enhancement of the ongoing learning process.
• Paraphrase Children need good schools if they
  are to learn properly.

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A Good Paraphrase is Clear

• Original It was the nocturnal segment of the
  diurnal period preceding the annual Yuletide
  celebration that through our place of residence,
  kinetic activity was not in evidence among the
  organic possessors of this potential, including
  the species of diminutive rodent known as Mus
  Musculus.
• Paraphrase Twas the night before Christmas,
  when all through the house, not a creature was
  stirring, not even a mouse.

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A Good Paraphrase is Concise

• Original The office wasnt open at that point
  in time, owing to the fact that there was no
  electrical power in the building. (22 words)
• Paraphrase The office was closed then because
  there was no electricity in the building. (13
  words)

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A Good Paraphrase is Concise

• Original Macbeth was very ambitious. This led
  him to wish to become king of Scotland. The
  witches told him that this wish of his would come
  true. The king of Scotland at this time was
  Duncan. Encouraged by his wife,, Macbeth murdered
  Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as
  king. (51 words)
• Paraphrase Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth
  achieved his ambition and realized the prediction
  of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming
  King of Scotland in his place. (26 words)

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A Good Paraphrase is Charitable

• Principle of charity Interpret the passage as
  charitably as the evidence reasonably permits.
• Original You know as well as I do that you
  cant get a good job today unless you have a
  college degree. So, I hope youll rethink your
  decision not to go to college.
• Paraphrase 1 No one can get a good job today
  unless they have a college degree, so I hope
  youll rethink your decision not to go to
  college.
• Paraphrase 2 Its very difficult to get a good
  job today unless one has a college degree, so I
  hope youll rethink your decision not to go to
  college.

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Practice

• Critical Thinking, p. 179, Exercise 7.2

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Finding Missing Premises Conclusions

• Store Clerk Im sorry. I cant sell you any
  beer youre under twenty-one.
• Advertisement The bigger the burger, the better
  the burger. Burgers are bigger at Burger King.
• Sally cant drive because she doesnt have a
  drivers license.
• Often used to conceal a weak argument.
• Shes Cuban. So Shes probably hot tempered.

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Finding Missing Premises Conclusions

• An argument with a missing premise or conclusion
  is called an enthymeme.
• Two basic rules for filing in missing steps in
  enthymemes.
• Faithfully interpret the arguers intentions ask
  what else the arguer must assume that he does
  not say to reach his conclusion.
• Be charitable Be as generous in interpreting
  other peoples incompletely stated arguments as
  you would like them to be in interpreting your
  own.

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Practice

• Critical Thinking, p. 181-82, Exercise 7.3

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Summarizing Extended Arguments

• Standardization restating an argument in
  standard logical form.
• An argument is said to be in standard logical
  form when each step in the argument is numbered
  consecutively, premises are stated above the
  conclusions they are claimed to support, and
  justifications are provided for each conclusion
  in the argument.

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

1. Identify the main conclusion.
2. Omit any unnecessary or irrelevant material.
3. Number the steps in the argument and order them
   with premises above conclusions. State the main
   conclusion last.
4. Fill in any key missing premises or conclusions.
5. Add parenthetical justifications for each
   conclusion in the argument.

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

• Argument
• The desire for perfect happiness is inborn in all
  of us, it is a universal human longing, it is
  rooted in human nature. But everything that is in
  human nature has been put there by God. In His
  Wisdom and Goodness, he could not have implanted
  a natural longing that was impossible to fulfill.
  Therefore, there must exist, somehow, a real
  perfect happiness which is within the capacity of
  struggling men to attain.

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

• Step 1 Paraphrase the arguments as concisely as
  the arguers intent allows.
• 1) The desire for perfect happiness is inborn in
  all of us,
• 2) It is a universal human longing,
• 3) It is rooted in human nature.
• The desire for perfect happiness is a natural
  longing, inborn in all human beings.

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

• Step 2 Number the statements and list them in
  logical order
• 1) The desire for perfect happiness is a natural
  longing, inborn in all human beings.
• 2) But everything that is in human nature has
  been put there by God.
• 3) In His Wisdom and Goodness, God could not
  have implanted a natural longing that was
  impossible to fulfill.
• 4) Therefore, it must be possible for human
  beings to achieve perfect happiness.

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

• Step 3 Check to see whether any of the steps in
  the argument are unnecessary or irrelevant. If
  there are, delete them.
• Step 4 Check to see whether there are any
  crucial premises or conclusions missing in the
  argument. If so, supply them.

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

• Step 5 Add justification to indicate which
  premises are intended to support which
  conclusions.
• 1) The desire for perfect happiness is a natural
  longing, inborn in all human beings.
• 2) But everything that is in human nature has
  been put there by God.
• 3) In His Wisdom and Goodness, God could not
  have implanted a natural longing that was
  impossible to fulfill.
• 4) Therefore, it must be possible for human
  beings to achieve perfect happiness. (from 1-3)

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

• Argument
• We can see something only after it has happened.
  Future events, however, have not yet happened.
  So, seeing a future event seems to imply both
  that it has and has not happened, and thats
  logically impossible.

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

• Steps 1 2 Identifying premises and
  conclusions
• We can see something only after it has happened.
• Future events have not yet happened.
• So, seeing a future event seems to imply both
  that it has and has not happened.
• It is logically impossible for an event both to
  have happened and not to have happened.

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

• Steps 3 4 Check for any irrelevant statements
  check for any important premises or conclusions
  missing in the argument.
• Missing conclusion
• It is logically impossible to see a future event.

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Steps in Standardizing an Argument

• Step 5 Add missing premises / conclusions to the
  argument in brackets and add parenthetical
  justifications to indicate which premises support
  which conclusions.
• We can see something only after it has happened.
• Future events have not yet happened.
• So, seeing a future event seems to imply both
  that it has and has not happened. (from 1-2)
• It is logically impossible for an event both to
  have happened and not to have happened.
• Therefore, it is logically impossible to see a
  future event. (from 3-4)

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Common Mistakes to Avoid in Standardizing
Arguments

• Dont write in incomplete sentences.
• Examples
• a. Because animals can experience pain and
  suffering (incorrect)
• Therefore, its wrong to kill or mistreat
  animals. (from a)
• Animals can experience pain and suffering.
  (correct)
• Therefore, its wrong to kill or mistreat
  animals. (from a)

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Common Mistakes to Avoid in Standardizing
Arguments

• Dont include more than one statement per line.
• Examples
• The President should resign, since he no longer
  enjoys the confidence of the Board of Trustees.
  (from a, incorrect)
• The president no longer enjoys the confidence of
  the Board of Trustees.
• Therefore, he should resign. (from a, correct)

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Common Mistakes to Avoid in Standardizing
Arguments

• 3. Dont include anything that is not a
  statement.
• Examples
• a. Its all the same whether theres a Democrat
  or a Republican in the White House.
• Therefore, why should I care about presidential
  politics? (from a, incorrect)
• b. Its all the same whether theres a Democrat
  or a Republican in the White House.
• Therefore, I have no reason to care about
  presidential politics. (from a, correct)

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Common Mistakes to Avoid in Standardizing
Arguments

• Dont include anything that is not a premise or a
  conclusion.
• Examples
• Many people today argue that capital punishment
  is morally wrong. (incorrect)
• But the Good Book says, an eye for an eye, a
  tooth for a tooth.
• What the Good Book says is true.
• Therefore, capital punishment is not morally
  wrong (from b-c)

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Practice

• Critical Thinking, p. 188-193, Exercise 7.4