OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

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• OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH SAFETY
• MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
• AUDITOR TRAINING COURSE
• IRCA REG. NO. A16834

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1 Introduction

• 1.1 Background Development
• During the Industrial Revolution, technological
  advances introduced and increased the use of
  machinery and toxic materials in the workplace.
  As a result, workers in factories faced health
  and safety risks that were previously unheard of.
• Health and safety problems and hazards that
  workers face include the following
• Poor working conditions
• Exposure to toxic materials or chemicals
• Long working hours
• Work-induced stress
• Excessive noise levels
• Risks to life, eyes, and limb while working with
  machinery

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• In 1970, (OSHA) was established as a
  comprehensive occupational safety and health law
  to assure so far as possible for every working
  man and woman in the nation safe and healthful
  working conditions and to preserve human
  resources 1.
• In addition, OHSAS 18001 specification and the
  accompanying OHSAS 18002 guidelines have been
  developed
• OHS management system to enable organization to
  control its OHS risks and improve its
  performance.

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• 1.2 Concepts of Occupational Health
• Defined as
• "that science and art devoted to the
  anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and
  control of those environmental factors or
  stresses arising in or from the workplace, which
  may cause sickness, impaired health and
  well-being, or significant discomfort among
  workers or among the citizens of the
  community."i

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• 1.3 Concepts of Safety Engineering
• Interdisciplinary in nature ought to be applied
  early in system development.
• Control monetary and physical loses
• Safety costs should be justified like other
  forces competing for limited organizational
  resources.
• Safety should be considered a long-term
  investment.
• Figure 1.1 shows that its application requires
  integration with many other functions

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Figure 1.1 Safety Interactions
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• 1.4 Philosophy Supporting OHS Management System
  Standards
• safety denotes concern for physical injuries that
  might be experienced by the worker
• Health denotes concern for physiological
  injuries
• welfare refers to concern for a range of
  psychological conditions.
• this type of approach promotes a holistic
  appreciation of a workers well being as well as
  a comprehensive understanding of the contribution
  of workplace conditions to it.

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• The basic principles of a holistic approach to
  workplace health and safety are thus
• The health and safety of a worker is influenced
  by conditions of the workplace and by non- work
  related factors that can be potentiated by the
  workplace.
• Workplace effects on human health and safety are
  not restricted to only the on- site workplace or
  the worker

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Figure 1.2 Holistic Overview of the Workplace,
Environmental Quality Human Communityi
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• 1.5 Modern OHS Legislation
• At both national and international levels, the
  modern corporation is perceived as having both a
  moral and a legal responsibility to protect its
  employees from
• Workplace sources of injury and
• Workplace insults to a workers pre- existing
  debilitationi.
• By ensuring proper responsibilities, common
  problems such as those stated below can be
  avoided.
• Lack of sufficient authority to implement safety-
  
• Isolation from higher decision makers who must
  bear the potential liability associated with
  workplace injury
• Isolation from production- level personnel have
  primary responsibility for production but they
  play a crucial role in the implementation of an
  effective safety program.

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• 1.6 Scope of OHS Management Systems
• The scope of an OHS management system,
  applicable to any organization, includes
• Establishing an OHS management system to
  eliminate or minimize risk to employees and other
  interested parties who may be exposed to OHS
  risks associated with its activities
• Implementing, maintaining and continually
  improving an OHS management system
• Assuring itself of its conformance with its
  stated OHS policy
• Demonstrating such conformance to others

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• 1.7 Definitions Terminology
• The terms and definitions used in the OHSAS
  18001 specifications are
• Accident
• Audit
• Continual Improvement
• Hazard
• Hazard identification
• Incident
• NOTE An accident where no ill heath, injury,
  damage, or other loss is also referred to as a
  near miss. The term Incident includes
  near-misses.
• Interested parties
• Non-conformance

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• Objectives
• Occupational health and safety
• OHS management system
• Organization
• NOTE For organizations with more than one
  operating unit, a single operation unit may be
  defined as an organization.
• Performance
• NOTE Performance measurement includes of OHS
  management activities and results.
• Risk
• Risk assessment
• Safety
• Tolerable risk

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Chapter 2 Introduction to OHS Standards
Applications

• 2.1 Influence of the Working Environment
• There are various kinds of positive and negative
  factors in the working environments
• Physical demands may refer to manual lifting
  loads and extended working hours.
• For mental demand, it appears to be dependent on
  the level of mental work pressure and the
  experience of the worker involved.
• Use of ear protection will be in order as
  excessive noise levels (gt85 to 90 dB) can cause
  hearing loss.
• Proper illumination is necessary to avoid having
  workers headaches and fatigue as a result of
  eyestrain.
• Working temperature can cause great discomfort if
  it is too high or too low.

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• mental and emotional factors to consider
• Lifting the morale of workers can do wonders to
  improve productivity.
• A pleasant working place with convenient
  facilities will increase the workers morale,
  resulting in worker efficiency.

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• 2.2 OHS Management System Model
• The first three clauses of the OHSAS 18001 1999
  specifications follow the ISO 14001 approach
  closely. The three common clauses are
• Scope
• Informative references
• Definitions
• Organizations using the ISO 14001 approach should
  use the OHSAS 18002 guidelines in carrying out
  the respective approach for clause 4.
• Figure 2.1 illustrate the order of flow of OHSAS
  elements.

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Figure 2.1 OHS Management System Model for
OHSAS 18001 System Elements
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• 2.3 OHS Management System Elements
• The six elements for occupational health
  safety management system are based on
• Initial Status Review
• OHS Policy
• Planning
• Implementation and Operation
• Checking and Corrective Action
• Management Review

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• 2.3.1 Initial Status Review
• An initial review of a companys existing
  arrangements for managing OHS should be carried
  out prior to implementation.
• Performing an initial status review also provides
  information on the scope, adequacy and current
  status of the OHS management system.

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• 2.3.2 OHS Policy
• The OHS policy should be defined and authorized
  by the organizations top management.
• Such a policy establishes an overall sense of
  direction and sets up the principles of action
  for an organization.i
• It demonstrates formal commitment of an
  organization towards good OHS management,
  particularly that of the organizations top
  management.ii

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• 2.3.3 Planning
• Plans must be formulated to fulfill the OHS
  policy.
• Hazard identification should be performed with
  risk assessment.
• Control measures should be implemented if
  necessary.
• The legal requirements that are applicable to
  OHS should be identified
• The goals and objectives of the OHS system
  established.
• After identifying problematic areas, appropriate
  corrective actions should be implemented.

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• 2.3.4 Implementation and Operation
• responsibility of a person at the most senior
  management level.
• Necessary training should be carried out, to
  ensure workers understand their safety and health
  responsibilities
• Updates should be spread throughout the
  organization effectively through an efficient
  communication system.
• In addition, a system of documentation should be
  established.
• OHS should be fully integrated where each
  employee appreciates the implications of OHS.
• In the case of foreseeable emergencies,
  contingency plans should be prepared in advance.

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• 2.3.5 Checking and Corrective Action
• Monitoring and measurement of performance ought
  to be performed on a regular basis.
• The measurement of performance of the OHS
  management system will give an indication of its
  effectiveness.
• Areas that need improvement can be identified
  and followed up by taking necessary actions.
• Corrective actions should be taken as soon as any
  deficiencies are found.
• Relevant records of OHS actions taken should be
  made to meet legal requirements.
• Periodically, audits conducted by independent
  personnel will give a more in-depth look at the
  system.

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• 2.3.6 Management Review
• Involve the making of several decisions, based on
  the organizations structure and size.
• Matters such as frequency of audits and the
  effectiveness of the OHS system as a whole and
  in its individual elements are considered
  frequently.
• Following an audit, a management review decides
  on what should be done about identified problems.
• In any management programs, the system has to be
  reviewed constantly to ensure its continuing
  suitability, adequacy and effectiveness.

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CHAPTER 3 INTERPRETATION OF THE OHSAS 18001 1999
SPECIFICATIONS

• 3.1 Overview of the OHSAS 18001 1999
• OHSAS 18001 1999 is developed together with the
  OHSAS 18002, Guidelines for the implementation of
  OHSAS 18001
• OHSAS 18001 is developed such that it is
  compatible with the ISO 9001 1994 (Quality) and
  ISO 14001 1996 (Environmental) management
  systems standards.
• to facilitate the easy integration of quality,
  environmental and occupational health and safety
  management systems
• Nevertheless, it is not a pre- requisite that an
  organization has to comply to ISO 9000 or ISO
  14000 requirements for the operation of OHSAS
  18001.

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• An OHS management system must meets both the
  OHSAS 18001 specification and all local legal
  requirements as well.
• Relevant procedures and documentation, which
  relates to records and periodic reviews, should
  be added where necessary
• The elements of an effective OHS approach are
  presented in Figure 3.1.

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Continual Improvement
OHS Policy
Management Review
Planning
Checking and Corrective Action
Implementation Operation
Figure 3.1 Elements of an OHS management
systemi
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• 3.2 Clauses in OHSAS 18001
• clauses and requirements in the OHSAS 18001 1999
• Clause 4.1 General Requirements
• states that the organization shall establish and
  maintain an OHS management system,
• Depending on the size of the organization and the
  nature of its activities, the extent of
  documentation and the resources devoted to it
  have to be developed and adapted to fit into the
  organization under review.
• Clause 4.2 OHS Policy
• states overall health and safety objectives and a
  commitment to improving health and safety
  performance.
• an indication of the organizations overall sense
  of direction and principles of action.

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Figure 3.2 OHS Policyi
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• In planning the policy, the management shall
  ensure that
• It is appropriate to the nature and scale of the
  organizations OHS risks.
• There is a commitment to continual improvement
• There is a commitment to at least comply with
  current applicable OHS legislation and other
  requirements  
• It is documented, implemented and maintained as
  called for by the OHSAS Standards. 
• All employees are educated on their individual
  OHS obligations.
• It can be made available to interested parties.
• It is reviewed periodically to ensure its
  relevance and suitability to the organization.

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• Clause 4.3 Planning

Figure 3.3 Planningi
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• OHSAS 18001 specifies planning requirements
  based on four categories before any
  implementation is to be carried out. They are
  addressed as follows
• Clause 4.3.1 Planning for Hazard Identification,
  Risk Assessment Risk Control
• control measures to include routine and
  non-routine activities, activities of all
  personnel (including subcontractors and visitors)
  having access to the workplace, and facilities at
  the workplace.
• defined with respect to the scope, nature and
  timing to ensure that it is proactive rather than
  reactive
• Is consistent with operating experience and the
  capabilities of risk control measures used
• Provide ways to classify and identify risks to be
  eliminated, or controlled by measures defined in
  clauses 4.3.3 and 4.3.4.
• Provide input to determine the facility
  requirements, training needs and operational
  controls,
• Monitoring mechanisms to ensure the effectiveness
  and timeliness of their implementation.

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• The purpose of this requirement is to provide for
  total appreciation of all significant OHS
  hazards in the organizations domain using the
  process of risk assessment.
• The following elements of decision-making shall
  be reflected in the risk assessment.
• Identification of risks.
• Evaluation of risks within the existing control
  measures in place.
• Decision on the tolerability of this residual
  risk.
• Identification of any additional control measures
  considered necessary.
• Evaluation of whether these are sufficient to
  reduce the risks to tolerable levels.

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• Clause 4.3.2 Legal and other requirements
• organization aware of all applicable OHS
  regulations and how they can affect its
  activities.
• legal and other OHS requirements applicable to
  the organization identified and up to date.
• organization able to access these legal documents
  conveniently, and communicate the information to
  other parties who have an interest in it.
• Clause 4.3.3 Objectives
• take into account legal and other requirements
• reasonable, achievable and communicated to the
  employees efficiently.
• Suitable indicators shall be established so that
  objectives can be reviewed and monitored
  regularly.

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• Clause 4.3.4 OHS Management Programs
• has to be established so as to achieve the OHS
  objectives
• important to include the documentation of the
  responsibility and authority for achievement of
  the objectives at relevant functions and levels
  of the organization, and the means and time scale
  by which the objectives are to be obtained.
• individuals and tasks responsible for the
  deliverance of the objectives at relevant levels
  can be identified.
• It aids the organization in allocating suitable
  talents, responsibilities and time- frames for
  jobs to be done.
• The OHS management programs shall be reviewed at
  regular and planned intervals in order to keep up
  with changes.

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• Clause 4.4 Implementation and Documentation

Figure 3.4 Implementation and Operationi
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• Clause 4.4.1 Structure and Responsibility
• The roles, responsibilities and authorities of
  all personnel who are involved in the running of
  OHS risks of the organization shall be defined,
  documented and made known
• The top management holds the greatest
  responsibility of ensuring the proper
  implementation of the OHS management system.  
• The management representative or appointee shall
  
• Ensure the OHS management system requirements
  are established, implemented and maintained in
  accordance with the OHS specification,
• Ensure reports on the performance of the OHS
  management system are presented to the top
  management for the review and making of improved
  adjustments

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• Clause 4.4.2 Training, Awareness and Competence
• Employee awareness in the following areas is
  important and procedures shall be established and
  maintained
• The importance of conformance to the OHS policy
  and procedures, and the requirements of the
  management system
• Both actual and potential OHS consequences,
  their work activities and the OHS benefits of
  improved personnel performance
• Their roles and responsibilities in conforming to
  the OHS policy and requirements of the
  management system.
• Potential consequences of straying from specified
  operating procedures.
• Employees need to be educated on their specific
  responsibilities and the roles expected of them
  to maintain the OHS management system.
• Appropriate records of individuals training and
  competency shall be maintained.

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• Clause 4.4.3 Consultation and Communication
• the management has to establish and document
  proper procedures for easy and accurate
  communication.
• The freedom of employee involvement and
  consultation arrangements shall be established so
  that there is an effective and open communication
  of OHS information. There shall also be
  arrangements to
• Involve employees in the development and review
  of policies, and procedures to manage risks,
  including the carrying out or review of risk
  assessments relevant to their own activities.
• Consult employees over changes affecting the
  workplace OHS such as the introduction of new
  equipment, new working procedures or work
  patterns.
• Represent employees on health and safety matters.
• Inform employees their OHS representative to the
  management and the selected management appointee.

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• Clause 4.4.4 Documentation
• The organization shall document all important and
  essential information and maintain up to date
  sufficient documentation to ensure that its OHS
  system can be adequately understood and
  efficiently operated.
• it shall describe the core elements of the
  management system and their interaction, as well
  as provide direction to the related documentation
  at the same time.
• It may be more convenient and effective instead,
  to establish an overview document describing the
  inter-relation between the existing procedures
  and overall OHSAS requirements

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• Clause 4.4.5 Document and Data Control
• This clause calls for the organization to
  establish and maintain proper procedures for
  controlling all the important documents and data
  required by this OHSAS 18001 specification.  
• There shall be a written procedure to define the
  controls for the approval, issue and removal of
  safety documentation, together with the control
  of safety records and data. Arrangements must be
  made ensure that specified documents and data
• a) Can be located.
• b) Are periodically reviewed, revised as
  necessary and approved for adequacy by authorized
  personnel.
• c) Are current and up-dated, and available at all
  locations where operations essential to the
  effective functioning of the OHS system are
  performed.
• d) Are removed from all points of issue and
  points of use or otherwise assured against
  unintended use once they are obsolete.
• e) Are suitably identified, particularly for
  archival documents and data retained for legal or
  knowledge preservation purposes or both.

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• Clause 4.4.6 Operational Control
• Control measures shall be applied to those
  operations and activities associated with
  identified risks.
• The organization can carry out the preparations
  by
• a)  Establishing and maintaining documented
  procedures to cover situations where their
  absence could lead to deviations from the OHS
  policy and their objectives.
• b)  Stipulating operating criteria in the
  procedures.
• c) Establishing and maintaining procedures
  related to the identified OHS risks of goods,
  equipment and services purchased and/ or used by
  the organization and communicating relevant
  procedures and requirements to suppliers and
  contractors.
• d) Establishing and maintaining procedures for
  the design of workplace, process, installations,
  machinery, operating procedure and work
  organization, including their adaptation to human
  capabilities in order to eliminate or reduce OHS
  risks at their source.

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• Clause 4.4.7 Emergency Preparedness and Response
  
• The organization shall have to establish and
  maintain plans and procedures to identify the
  potential for, and responses to such incidents
  and emergency situations and for preventing the
  likely illnesses, injuries or hazards associated
  with them.
• The organization shall develop an emergency plan
  and identify and provide appropriate emergency
  equipment.
• The emergency preparedness and response plans
  and procedures shall be reviewed frequently,
  especially after the occurrence of any incidents
  and emergencies.
• The response capability of the emergency plan
  needs to be tested for feasibility and rehearsed
  where viable for employee awareness.

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• Clause 4.5 Checking and Corrective Action

Figure 3.5 Checking and Corrective Actioni
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• Clause 4.5.1 Performance Measurement and
  Monitoring
• These procedures shall provide for
• Both qualitative and quantitative measures,
  appropriate to the needs of the organization.
• Monitoring the extent to which the organizations
  OHS objectives are met.
• Proactive measures of performance to monitor
  compliance with the OHS management program,
  operational criteria and applicable legislation
  and regulatory requirements.
• Reactive measures of performance to monitor
  accidents, ill health, incidents (including near
  misses) and other historical evidence of
  deficient OHS performance.
• Recording of data and results of monitoring and
  measurement sufficient to facilitate subsequent
  corrective and preventative action analysis.

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• Performance management proposes to determine
  whether OHS plans and risk controls have been
  implemented and achieved,
• to learn from any system failures including
  hazardous events, and to promote implementation
  by providing feedback and information for
  continual review and improvement.
• Monitoring equipment, if required for any
  performance measurement and monitoring, have to
  be calibrated and maintained.
• Proper procedures and records for the calibration
  and maintenance process shall have to be
  retained.

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• Clause 4.5.2 Accidents, Incidents, Non-
  conformances and Corrective Preventive Action
• The organization shall establish and maintain
  procedures to define responsibility and authority
  for
• a.The handling and investigation of accidents,
  incidents or non- conformances.
• b.Taking action to mitigate any consequences
  arising from accidents, incidents or non-
  conformances.
• c.The initiation and completion of corrective and
  preventive action.
• d.Confirmation of the effectiveness of corrective
  and preventive actions that have been taken.
• Report and evaluation of these occurrences are
  necessary so that suitable corrective and
  preventive actions can be implemented.
• The investigation process and results and
  subsequent corrective or preventive actions have
  to be documented for future reference or
  analysis.

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• Clause 4.5.3 Records and Records Management
• Records shall be kept to demonstrate that the
  OHS system operates effectively, and that
  processes have been carried out under safe
  conditions.
• Safety records that document the management
  system and conformance to the requirements shall
  be legible, identifiable and traceable to the
  activities involved.
• These records have to be maintained and stored
  properly so that they are readily retrievable and
  protected against damage, deterioration or loss.
• Their retention times before disposal have to be
  established and recorded as appropriate to the
  system and the organizations rules.

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• Clause 4.5.4 Audit
• An audit program and its procedures shall have to
  be established and maintained. Periodic OHS
  audits have to be conducted to
• Determine whether the OHS management system
  conforms to planned arrangements for OHS
  management including the requirements of this
  OHS specification, has been properly implemented
  and maintained and is effective in meeting the
  organizations policy and objectives.
• b.     Review the results of previous audits.
• c.     Provide information of the audits results
  to management.
• Audit program, including its schedule, has to be
  based on the results of previous audits and that
  of the risk assessments conducted.  
• The results of all audits shall be fed back to
  all relevant parties as soon as possible to allow
  corrective actions to be taken.

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• Clause 4.6 Management Review

Checking and Conductive Action
Management Review
Internal Factors
External Factors
Policy
Figure 3.6 Management Reviewi
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• it is essential that the system is reviewed and
  evaluated periodically to ensure its continuity,
  suitability, adequacy and effectiveness.
• During the review, the management will evaluate
  the policy, objectives and other elements of the
  OHS management system for possible changes in
  view of the management system audit results, with
  changes in circumstances and commitment to
  continual improvement.
• Changing circumstances may include changes in
  legislation, varying expectations of interested
  parties, changes in the organizations products
  or activities, technological advances, marketing
  information, and feedback from OHS incidents.
• the management review needs to be documented.

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CHAPTER 4 ENSURING EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION
OPERATION

• 4.1 Organizational Structure, Responsibility
  Accountability
• Ultimate responsibility for occupational health
  and safety rests with the top management.
• The management plays a central role in
  implementing the occupational health and safety
  (OHS) program and determining its effectiveness.
   
• Accidents will decrease profits, as additional
  money has to be dealt out for workers
  compensation, damages and other hidden costs.  
• While organizing an OHS safety program, the
  management has to bear in mind that conflicts
  between staff, departments or management are
  inevitable

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• The management shall always be aware of the
  latest changes to health and safety requirements,
  legal OHS issues and policies.
• Managers shall also provide visible demonstration
  of their commitment to their staff, by visiting
  sites, being involved in accident investigation,
  and attending safety awareness courses and
  meetings.  
•  

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• 4.1.1 The Health and Safety Committee
• A committee drawn from various departments has
  many advantages, allowing greater committee scope
  and reach.
• In all cases, the committee shall be chaired by
  the person of highest authority to ensures the
  committee is empowered to perform its tasks
  without facing too much resistance.

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• The health and safety committee will have various
  tasks at hand. To begin with, methods for
  obtaining feedback from all levels within the
  organization shall be established.
• Other tasks that the committee can organize are
  as follows
• Inspections conducted on workplaces to detect
  hazards.
• Hold regular meetings to discuss accident and
  illness prevention methods, hazards discovered in
  the workplace, and injury and illness records and
  so on.
• Investigate accidents that occurred, and devise
  plans to prevent recurrence.
• Provide information to all employees on safe
  working practices.
• Recommend changes to present equipment to improve
  health and safety standards.
• Develop new or revise existing rules to comply
  with current standards.

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• 4.1.2 Task Groups
• Within a health and safety committee, several
  task groups may be formed. Each task group and
  their responsibilities are described as follows
  2
• Safety Activities To ensure the effectiveness of
  the OHS program in reducing injuries and
  illness, and to diffuse information pertaining to
  OHS matters.
• Rules Procedures Prepare, maintain and review
  new or existing general safety rules and
  procedures, and to ensure that rules are being
  followed.
• Inspection Audit Identify unsafe work area
  conditions and practices, and to increase safety
  awareness and participation.
• Fire Emergency Develop effective management
  programs to protect people, property and
  environment in emergencies.
• Education Training Manage, coordinate and
  review safety training programs.

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•  Health Environment Recommend measures to
  protect people, property and environment from
  hazardous substances, and to keep and eye on
  employees health and overall wellness.
•  Accident Investigation Determine cause of
  accidents and to prevent recurrence to eliminate
  and minimize hazards.
•  Housekeeping Improve employee morale, quality,
  productivity and safety and health by maintaining
  proper workplace housekeeping and orderliness.

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• 4.2 Importance of the OHS Policy
• It shall be defined in respect of the health,
  safety and welfare obligation to all employees.
• In order to fulfill this OHS policy, plan(s)
  shall be formulated and capabilities and support
  mechanism shall be developed.

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• 4.3 Planning and Implementation 
• The management shall take note to define,
  prioritize and quantify the organizations
  objectives clearly.
• Proper plans for any programs shall be developed
  in detail, and the availability of financial and
  other resources must be looked into before
  confirming any decisions.
• plans and policies that have been implemented
  shall be measured and reviewed all the time.
• organizations have to be pro- active in order to
  encourage continual improvement.
• An important part of OHS planning is the
  management of change.
• Internal standards policies, procedures and safe
  systems of work shall be available.

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Figure 4.1 A Procedure for OHS Planning and
Implementing
61

• 4.3.1 Risk Assessment
• Risk assessment shall be used when occupational
  hazards in a workplace appear to pose a
  significant threat and it is uncertain whether
  planned controls are adequate in practice.
• Organizations shall carry out risk assessment as
  part of their efforts for continual improvement.
•  The intent of risk assessments is to control
  risks before harm could occur.
• A risk assessment based on a participative
  approach also provides an opportunity for the
  management and the work force to agree on the
  organizations procedures with shared perceptions
  of hazards and risks.
• Several risk analysis of hazards have been
  developed for use such as the fault- tree
  analysis or the criticality analysis.  

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• 4.3.2 Emergency Preparedness and Response 
• The basic steps in developing an effective
  program are
• identifying the need for procedures
• implementing written procedures,
• conducting periodic tests,
• continual improvement through review and
  revision.

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• 4.4 Importance of Documentation and Record
  Keeping
• documentation shall not be voluminous as it
  lowers effectiveness and efficiency.
• Accurate and complete documented records are
  necessary because
• the law calls for it
• they can be made accessible at the point of use.
• determining the validity of claims in a lawsuit
• objective evidence to show that activities
  related to the requirements of an OHS system
  have been satisfactorily performed.
• reference purposes in the future.  

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• The following is a list of records that ought to
  be kept by an organization
• Occupational injuries and illnesses.
• Fire Protection
• Materials Handling/ Storage
• Machinery and Machine Guarding
• Welding, Cutting, Brazing Equipment
• Training
• Medical Records.
• Not all injuries and illnesses have to be
  recorded. They shall be classified according to
  work-related or non-work related first before it
  can be decided whether it is necessary to note
  the details of these job injuries and
  occupational illnesses. 

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Figure 4.2 Recording of Occupational Injuries
and Illnesses
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• 4.5 OHS Management System Audits
  Verification
• In order to ensure effective implementation,
  organization shall conduct periodically OHS
  management system audits and verification of its
  on-site implementation.
• 4.5.1 Inspections
• There are in general four types of inspection
  that may be conducted.
• Periodic Conducted at regular scheduled
  intervals.
• Intermittent Unannounced or surprise
  inspections.
• Continuous Part of a day-to-day operation.
• Special One-off inspections conducted for
  especially hazardous situations.
• The area being inspected will thus determine the
  kind of inspection to be performed. Proper
  documentation of data is to be done to ensure
  that employees are kept on their toes.

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• 4.5.2 Audits
• Audits are commonly conducted at the
  organizations by corporate personnel, external
  professional consultants, and selected local
  authorities, professional or ad-hoc associations.
• Basically, the organization has to perform a
  cost-benefit analysis and identify if the audit
  is an on-going process or on an ad-hoc basis,
  among others.
• 4.6 Periodic Status Review
• The management shall demonstrate commitment to
  the effective implementation of the OHS
  management system and shall undertake periodic
  status review to ensure maintenance and
  suitability of the OHS policy as well as to
  ensure continual improvement.

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CHAPTER 5 HAZARD AND RISK ASSESSMENT

• 5.1 Introduction to Risk Assessment
• Risk assessment is essentially
• an integration of the findings provided by a
  hazard assessment and an exposure assessment
• determines the adequacy of controls with respect
  to risks.
• The elements of a risk assessment can be defined
  by using a multi- or n- dimensional matrix.
• A matrix example of a risk assessment done on a
  construction sector is presented in Table 5.1.
• Severity and Probability of Occurrence
  (Frequency) of each hazard is rated.  

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Figure 5.1 Risk Assessment Procedures
70
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71
Table 5.1 An Example of a Risk Assessment Matrix
72

• 5.2 Differences between Hazards and Risks
• The word hazard always denotes a possibility or
  potential. Risk is however, defined as the
  combination of the likelihood and consequences of
  a specified hazardous event occurring.
• The difference between hazard and risk lies in
  that a hazard is a possible (or potential) harm
  or injury, whereas a risk is the probability that
  a person will actually experience a specific
  hazard.
• 5.2.1 Hazard Risk Reduction Strategies
• Product reformulation or chemical substitutions
  are two ways of replacing a hazardous chemical
  component in a product with a less hazardous or
  totally harmless material.
• In order to reduce the risks associated with a
  hazard that cannot be removed or reduced, it is
  necessary to reduce exposure.

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• This is possible by implementing three exposure
  control approaches in the following order
• Management Control through proper supervision of
  assignments, procedures, etc
• Engineering Control
• Personal protective clothing and equipment
• 5.3 Hazards Identification
• 5.3.1 Agents of Hazards
• Physical, chemical and biological agents can pose
  human health and safety hazards.
• Heat, noise and vibration are some common
  physical agents
• chemical agents are made up of naturally
  occurring and human made inorganic and organic
  chemicals.
• Biological agents include viruses and bacteria.
• They can be identified and described without
  reference to the human subjected to the
  associated hazardi.
•  

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A.
Physical Agents
Acoutistic Radiation
Sonic and ultrasonic sound, including continuous
and intermittent (impact) noise
Temperature
Heat and cold stress
Magnetic Radiation
Magnetic flux densities, including those having
influence on implanted medical devices and
ferromagnetic tools
Visible light, lasers, radio frequency/ microwave
radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and x-rays

Electromagnetic Radiation
Radionuclides and radiation (alpha, beta and
gamma) associated with unstable atomic nuclei or
nuclear reactions
Radioactivity
Stress associated with mechanical tensions in
musculo-skeletal system
Ergonomic Stress
Mechanical impact that exerts physical force on
body
Physical Impact
Figure 5.2 Examples of Hazardous Agents in the
Workplacei (Page 1 of 3)
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Chemical Agents
Agents Presenting Physical Risk
Asphyxiant
Vapors displace air and thereby cause suffocation
Combustible
Burns when subjected to a temperature greater
than 100oF and below 200oF
Corrosive
Chemically burns living tissue on contact
Suddenly releases pressure, gas and heat when
ignited
Explosive
Flammable
Burns when subjected to a temperature less than
100oF

A non-corrosive material that causes itching,
soreness or inflammation of exposed skin, eyes or
mucous membranes
Irritant
Pyrophoric
Ignites spontaneously in air at temperature of
130oF or lower
Organic Peroxide
Spontaneously explodes due to the formation of
unstable peroxides
Promotes or initiates the burning of combustible
or flammable material
Oxidizer
Water Reactive
Reacts with water to form a flammable or toxic gas
Unstable/Reactive
Spontaneously explodes with production of
pressure, gas, heat and possibly toxic fumes
Figure 5.2 Examples of Hazardous Agents in the
Workplacei (Page 2 of 3)
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B.
Chemical Agents
Agents Presenting Health Risk
Causes cancer
Carcinogen
Causes changes in genetic information that is
inherited from generation to generation
Mutagen
Causes life-threatening damage to tissues or
internal organs in very small amounts (e.g.
several teaspoons or less)
Poison
Sensitizer
Causes allergic reactions after repeated
exposures, with possibly severe or even
life-threatening consequences

Teratogen
Causes malfunction of the developing fetus
Toxic
Causes life-threatening damage to tissues or
internal organs, but in amounts greater than a
poison
Biological Agents
Bloodborne Pathogens
Disease causing organisms that may be transmitted
through blood and other blood-related bodily
fluids of infected persons
Other pathogens
Infectious diseases that may be transmitted by
means other than bodily fluids of infected
persons (e.g. water, air, food)
Figure 5.2 Examples of Hazardous Agents in the
Workplacei (Page 3 of 3)
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• 5.3.2 Classifications of Hazards
• There are two types of hazards
• one that is described in terms of the time
  interval between exposure to the hazard
• another that is defined based on the
  manifestation of consequent harm or injury.

Table 5.2 Classification of Hazard Types
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• 5.4 Quantifying Exposure
• As the essential link between hazard (a
  possibility) and risk (a probability), exposure
  must be examined in detail, with specific
  attention given to the following aspectsi
• Quantitative measure (e.g. concentration of
  chemical inhaled) which includes the measures of
  the amount or the nature of the hazardous agent,
  as well as the measures of the duration and
  frequency of exposure.
• Pathways by which the hazard comes into contact
  with human tissue (e.g. inhalation).
• Mechanism(s) by which a hazardous agent is
  transformed or propagated from its source to a
  human. Often referred to as environmental
  transport or fate.
• Mechanism(s) by which a hazardous agent might be
  transformed during its transport or propagation.
• Individual humans or populations that might come
  into contact with the hazard.

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• As a more holistic, integrated approach to
  workplace health and safety becomes established,
  it can be expected that such quantification of
  community exposures to the hazards of individual
  worksites will become more common.
• Any competent exposure analysis of industrial
  hazards includes a detailed description of the
  various specific pathways or routes by which a
  hazardous agent comes into contact with living
  tissue.
• Generic categories of environmental dynamics
  include
• Introduction of materials and energies into
  major environmental compartments
• Transformation of materials and energies within
  environmental compartments
• Translocation of materials and energies from
  compartment to compartment
• Concentration of materials and energies
  within compartments
• Dissipation of materials and energies within
  compartments
• Elimination of materials and energies within
  compartments. 

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Figure 5.3 Generic Environmental Processes that
influence the dynamic flows and transformation of
materials and energies in environmental
compartmentsi
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• 5.5 Hazards Analysis
• Checklists are usually drawn up to help in
  identifying hazards and hazardous operation
  relationships systematically.
• The hazard matrix is made up of rows and columns
• rows are made up of different items or function
  hazards.
• columns store progressive information about
  hazardous events, causes, effects and severities,
  probability of occurrence, controls,
  verifications of controls, and remarks.

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Table 5.3 An Example PHA Matrix Checklist Format
Using A Hot Water Heateri
83

• 5.5.1 Severity Rating
• Severity of hazardous effects is also known as
  hazard level or criticality category.
• It is a rating indicating the seriousness of an
  effect of a hazard on a worker or employee, and
  it can be defined into different categories with
  different values.
• There is a direct correlation between effect and
  severity, therefore severity is ranked according
  to the hazard effect.
• Severity rating shall be ranked based on the
  worst effects of a hazard mode.

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Table 5.4 Severity of the Hazardous Effecti
85

• 5.5.2 Probability of Occurrence
• Occurrence is the ranking of likelihood that a
  specific cause will occur with existing controls.
  
• The probability of occurrence, like severity, can
  be defined into different categories with
  different values and has to be calculated for
  every cause of the hazards.

Table 5.5 Probability of Occurrence of the
Hazardous Effects
86

• 5.5.3 Risk Ratings
• Severity and Probability factors are used to
  represent risk ratings
• The risks are then rated according to different
  levels of trivial, tolerable, moderate,
  substantial and intolerable.
• Risk ratings, such as risk index categories or
  risk assessment categories are used to guide
  management actions.

Table 5.6 Risk Rating Table
87
Table 5.7 Table showing the Interpretation of
Risks
88

• 5.6 Logic Tree Analysis

OR

Figure 5.4 Example of a Fault Treei
89

• Fault trees are usually drawn with an undesired
  event at the time and ways that the event could
  happen beneath, connected to the upper event by
  basically two types of logic gates- or and
  and.
• The or gate bears the meaning that any of the
  contributing events would be sufficient to cause
  the upper event,
• the and gate means all events must be present
  for the upper event to occur.
• At the same time, the trees are limited by
  using diamonds to represent a termination.
• Double diamonds, one within one another, are used
  to mark insufficient information, to remind
  analysts to review those portions later on.
• Caution must be given to maintain the correct
  logic within the tree. Without correct logic, the
  tree forms incorrect loops of circular logic and
  fails to portray reality.

90

• 5.7 Iteration and Expanded Matrix Analyses
• PHAs can and ought to be repeated with updated
  design information several times.
• This is an example of a common iterative system
  process of going back and updating or correcting
  an analysis based upon newer informationi.
• It explains the need to review fault trees.
• By changing matrix headings through asking
  different questions or more detailed questions,
  other types of matrices similar to the PHA are
  produced such as, System Hazard Analysis (SHA)
  or the Operating and Support Hazard Analysis
  (OSHA).

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CHAPTER 6 EMERGENCY RESPONSE AND PREPAREDNESS

• 6.1 Importance of Emergency Contingency
  Plans
• The existence of a sound emergency and disaster
  response plan in an organization often makes the
  difference between life and death.
• all efforts in an occupational health and safety
  program would come to nothing if the organization
  is incapable or unprepared if ever an emergency
  or disaster were to arise. 
• The worst possible outcome of such a situation
  would probably include a large number of deaths,
  the total annihilation of a factory putting it
  completely out of operation, and the cost of the
  damage to the company amounting to millions of
  dollars.
• In essence, emergency pre-planning measures can
  keep an event from becoming a disaster in the
  first place.

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• 6.2 Types of Emergencies and Disasters
• A disaster may be defined as a great, sudden
  misfortune resulting in loss of life, serious
  injury, or property damagei.

Figure 6.1 Types of Emergencies and Disasters
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• 6.2.1 Fire
• The quick action of the brigade is essential in
  order to minimize injury and damage, as well as
  to evacuate affected employees.
• 6.2.2 Explosion
• It is highly dangerous as it occurs suddenly
  without warning, and can inflict severe injuries
  and damage.
• 6.2.3 Tornado/ Weather Situations
• Employees should be instructed on how to
  evacuate their workplaces safely without leaving
  dangerous tasks unattended.
• 6.2.4 Sabotage and Terrorism/ Bomb Threats
• Internal security measures have to be taken for
  advanced detection and early notification of
  local police and help forces.
•  6.2.5 Strikes/ Violence
• Strikes, especially labour strikes, will affect
  operations badly.Thus, the company should be on
  the alert for any strikes.
•  
•  

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• 6.2.6 Accidents
• Accident prevention and investigation procedures
  should be present in the event of an accident.
• 6.2.7 Chemical Spill/ Vapor Release
• When a chemical spill or vapor release arise,
  appropriate actions and personnel should be
  engaged for proper disposal of the hazardous
  materials.
• 6.2.8 Radiation
• Even small amounts of radioactive material pose a
  significant threat to health. Therefore,
  facilities for showers and eyewash should be
  present and easily accessible.
• 6.2.9 Energy Emergencies
• Energy emergencies are usually caused by fuel
  shortages.

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• 6.3 What is Emergency Contingency
  Planning
• An effective emergency plan will take into
  account the following factors
• Plans and procedures Safest and most effective
  procedures that people affected by the emergency
  should follow.
• Training, testing and practice Sufficient
  testing to ascertain the emergency plans
  effectiveness should be carried out, perhaps in
  conjunction with training and drills.
• Communications equipment and personnel To
  maintain open lines of communication, there
  should be adequate communication equipment and
  personnel assigned to such tasks.
• Equipment Sufficient equipment to deal with
  emergencies should be readily available. 
• Response Immediate response to emergency from
  the authorities is of utmost importance.
•  

96
Figure 6.2 Emergency Response Relationships
97

• 6.4 Elements of Emergency Plan Response
• Most of the elements stated below are in
  compliance to the Chemical Process Safety
  Regulations 29 CFR 1910.39 (Employee Emergency
  Plans).
• 6.4.1 Policy
• The policy defines the attitude of the company
  towards emergency planning.
• 6.4.2 Authority
• A chain of command should be established to
  minimize confusion so that employees will have no
  doubt who has the authority for making
  decisionsi.  
• 6.4.3 Emergency Escape Procedures and Routes
• Emergency escape procedures and routes should be
  posted in each work area. 
• 6.4.4 Personnel who remain to operate critical
  operations

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• 6.4.5 Employee Accountability Procedures After
  Evacuation
• Each supervisor should be responsible for his or
  her assigned employees, to ensure that the
  identities and status of well being of all the
  employees are established.
• 6.4.6 Control Center
• The function of the control center is to have a
  place where all instructions are given out and
  information is exchanged in case of an emergency.
   
• 6.4.7 Rescue and Medical Duties
• Emergency teams should be trained in the various
  types of possible emergencies and actions to be
  performed such as first- aid and transportation.
• 6.4.8 Transportation
• Injured people must be evacuated safely out of
  dangerous areas and the critically ill must be
  sent to hospital as soon as possible.  
• 6.4.9 Communications
• A method of communications is required to alert
  employees of the evacuation.  
•  

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• 6.4.10 Training/ Practice
• Training in the following areas will be useful 
• Use of various types of fire extinguishers.
• First- aid, including Cardio Pulmonary
  Resuscitation
• Shut- down procedures
• Evacuation procedures
• Chemical spill control procedures
• Use of self- contained breathing apparatus
• Search and emergency rescue
  proceduresii 
• 6.4.11 Personal Protection and Rescue Equipment
• Effective personal protective equipment should be
  stored in a place that is easily reached,
  checked, serviced and cleaned regularly.  
• 6.4.12 Lighting
• Back up portable generators are indispensable in
  providing necessary lighting to carry out
  necessary rescue operations.
• 6.4.13 Security
• An off-limits area must be established by
  cordoning the area with ropes and signs.

100

• 6.5 Developing an Emergency Response Plan
• The development of a practical and effective
  emergency response program is essentially a
  normative process.

Figure 6.3 Three Phases for Devising Emergency
Response Policies and Proceduresi
101

• 6.5.1 Risk Assessments Phase
• Factors that are necessary in this phase are the
  sources and types of hazards, the degree of
  exposure and the persons exposed.
• Techniques available to the planner include
  hazard analysis, failure modes and effects
  analysis, and fault and event tree analysis.  
• 6.5.2 Safety Judgement Phase
• This phase seeks to determine the level of
  protection for each population under risk, while
  keeping in mind their social and cultural values
  and current regulatory standards.
• 6.5.3 Making-Safe Strategy Phase
• As shown in Figure 6.4, policies and procedures
  should address three basic types of emergency
  response activities
• Preparation Activities Undertaken immediately
  upon discovery of a potential or actual
  emergency, prior to the initiation of any
  response.
• Response Activities Include all efforts to
  control the emergency and provide assistance to
  affected persons.
• Follow-up Activities Focus on post emergency
  actions to bring the company back to a state of
  emergency readiness, including revisions to
  emergency plans based on experience of past
  emergencies.

102

Figure 6.4 Basic Emergency Response Operationsi
103

• 6.6 First Aid in Emergency Planning
• Safety programs must place proper emphasis on
  life- saving actions.  
• General approach in every emergency situation is
  explained below. 
• 1.     Survey the scene.
• Proper precautions have to be taken,
  especially in toxic atmospheres. Quick and
  decisive actions have to be made sometimes, such
  as whether to move the casualty or wait for
  proper medical personnel to arrive, seeking help
  from people around.
• 2.     Do a primary survey of the victim.
• The victims breathing rate, heart rate and
  level of consciousness are noted here.
• 3.     Phone Emergency Medical Services for help.
• . The victim should always be brought to the
  hospital for a proper examinationbefore declaring
  his state of health.  
• 4.     Do a secondary survey of the victim.
• Vital conditions such the victims breathing,
  heart rate, consciousness and any other injuries
  have to be monitored frequently.

104
CHAPTER 7 OHS Management System Assessment

• 7.1 Introduction
• Auditing is a procedure for periodic, systematic,
  documented, and objective evaluation of
  operations and practices in meeting safety,
  health, and environmental requirementsi.
• It is also a quality assurance tool that can
  verify whether management and technical practices
  exist, function properly, and are adequate to
  meet the organizations goalsii.
• An organization has to plan for annual internal
  and external safety audits to be conducted.
• The safety audit ought to cover the entire
  operatio