The Problem of Vocabulary:

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The Problem of Vocabulary Defining Best Practice
for Struggling Readers Michael C.
McKenna Georgia Southern University
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connotation denotation sociogram distinguishing
feature distributed practice open sort word family
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What is vocabulary?
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word-hoard
estuary
argon
id
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What is vocabulary?

• Speaking vocabulary
• Listening vocabulary
• Reading vocabulary
• Writing vocabulary
• General vocabulary
• Technical vocabulary
• Meaning vocabulary

Modality Domain
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What is vocabulary?

• Speaking vocabulary
• Listening vocabulary
• Reading vocabulary
• Writing vocabulary
• General vocabulary
• Technical vocabulary
• Meaning vocabulary

Modality Domain
7
What is vocabulary?

• Speaking vocabulary
• Listening vocabulary
• Reading vocabulary
• Writing vocabulary
• General vocabulary
• Technical vocabulary
• Meaning vocabulary

Modality Domain
8
What is vocabulary?

• Speaking vocabulary
• Listening vocabulary
• Reading vocabulary
• Writing vocabulary
• General vocabulary
• Technical vocabulary
• Meaning vocabulary

Modality Domain
9
What is vocabulary?

• Speaking vocabulary
• Listening vocabulary
• Reading vocabulary
• Writing vocabulary
• General vocabulary
• Technical vocabulary
• Meaning vocabulary

Modality Domain
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
114,000 words
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
114,000 words
impertransibility queck nould
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
114,000 words
2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd
ed.)
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1755 Dictionary of the English Language
114,000 words
2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd
ed.)
660,000 words
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webcam cyberphobic doh
2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd
ed.)
660,000 words
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English users follow set rules for coining new
words, thus adding greatly to the number of
potential words in the language.
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English users follow set rules for coining new
words, thus adding greatly to the number of
potential words in the language.
The postman likes our street because it is
dogless.
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Are you a logophile?
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50K 40K 30K 20K 10K 0
5,000 1,500
K 12
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50K 40K 30K 20K 10K 0
45,000 17,000
5,000 1,500
K 12
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A Vocabulary Riddle To comprehend what we read,
at least 95 of the words must be recognized
automatically. How is this possible given the
number of words in English?
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NRP Findings on Vocabulary

• Teaching vocabulary improves general
  comprehension ability.
• Preteaching vocabulary helps both word learning
  and comprehension of a selection.
• Much vocabulary is acquired through incidental
  exposure.
• Repeated exposures in a variety of contexts are
  important.

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The Vocabulary Catch-22 Children need to learn
more words to read well, but they need to read
well to learn more words. McKenna, M.C.
(2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older
readers. Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16.
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NRP Findings on Vocabulary

• A combination of definitions and contextual
  examples works better than either one alone.
• Many instructional methods can be effective in
  teaching vocabulary.
• Instructional methods should result in active
  engagement.
• Both direct and indirect methods should be used.

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NRP Findings on Vocabulary

• The more connections that are made to a word, the
  better the word tends to be learned.
• Computer applications can be effective.
• The effectiveness of some instructional methods
  depends on the age or ability of the children.

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What the NRP said they didnt know about
vocabulary instruction

• Which methods work best with students of
  different ages and abilities?
• How can technology best be used to teach
  vocabulary?
• How is vocabulary best integrated with
  comprehension instruction?
• What combinations of instructional methods tend
  to work best?
• What are the best ways to assess vocabulary?

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What are some of the guiding principles of
teaching vocabulary?
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Preteach key words to improve comprehension.
Guiding Principle
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In 1367, Marain and the settlements ended a
seven-year war with the Langurians and Pitoks.
As a result of this war, Languria was driven out
of East Bacol. Marain would now rule Laman and
the other lands that once belonged to Languria.
This brought peace to the Bacolean settlements.
The settlers no longer had to worry about attacks
from Laman. The Bacoleans were happy to be part
of Marain in 1367. Yet a dozen years later,
these same people would be fighting the Marish
for independence, or freedom from United Marains
rule.
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In 1763, Britain and the colonies ended a
seven-year war with the French and Indians. As a
result of this war, France was driven out of
North America. Britain would now rule Canada and
the other lands that once belonged to France.
This brought peace to the American colonies. The
settlers no longer had to worry about attacks
from Canada. The Americans were happy to be part
of Britain in 1763. Yet a dozen years later,
these same people would be fighting the British
for independence, or freedom from Great Britains
rule.
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Provide more than definitions.
Guiding Principle
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WORD DEFINITION
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WORD DEFINITION Stimulus Response
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WORD DEFINITION Stimulus Response trunca
te to cut off
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WORD DEFINITION Stimulus Response trunca
te to cut off She truncated the lights.
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Connotations

• Whats the difference between a fiddle and a
  violin?

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Combine definitions and contextual examples.
Guiding Principle
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Minimize rote copying of definitions.
Guiding Principle
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Introduce new words in related clusters.
Guiding Principle
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antennae
leg
thorax
wing
abdomen
In content areas, clustering words is natural!
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But general vocabulary words can also be
clustered if you work at it!
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Which list is easier to learn?

• fuselage
• flaps
• rudder
• stabilizer
• landing gear
• tail
• lift
• drag

• puce
• spire
• cad
• drab
• deft
• fad
• apt
• wry

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puce
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puce beigemagenta tealochre cyan mauve saf
fron chartreuse
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puce beigemagenta tealochre cyan mauve saf
fron chartreuse
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Some Exceptions to the Cluster Approach
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Words Named for People

• einsteinium
• teddy bear
• boycott
• pasteurize
• watt
• decibel
• saxophone
• braille

• silhouette
• sousaphone
• zinnia
• sideburns
• shrapnel
• magnolia
• hooligan
• gardenia

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Words Named for Places

• bikini
• tuxedo
• badminton
• hamburger
• californium
• uranium
• plutonium
• damask

• ottoman
• bayonet
• cologne
• frankfurter
• magenta
• marathon
• tangerine
• manila

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Words with Unusual Stories

• bazooka
• bleachers
• blurb
• cowlick
• crowbar
• Dixie
• gas
• goatee

• googol
• gorilla
• jeep
• jumbo
• sandwich
• Pacific
• serendipity
• tank

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Blends (Portmanteaus)

• beefalo
• bit
• brunch
• caplet
• cockapoo
• electrocute
• guestimate
• infomercial

• jack rabbit
• liger
• lox
• modem
• moped
• motel
• sitcom
• skort

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More Blends . . .

• slurb
• smog
• snazzy
• splatter
• spork (why not foon?)
• squiggle
• tangelo

• telethon
• tiglon
• transister
• twiddle
• zap
• zedonk
• breen

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Acronyms

• scuba
• radar
• sonar
• laser
• snafu
• fubar

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Mnemonics

• principle
• rule
• principal
• pal

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Roy G. Biv
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Provide brief, periodic review.
Guiding Principle
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A Thought Experiment
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Group 1

• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new
  words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20
  words
• This hour is uninterrupted.

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Group 2

• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new
  words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20
  words
• This hour is broken into 6 10-minute sessions, 1
  per month for 6 months.

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Assuming that no one encountered any of the 20
words again, which group would do better on a
test after a delay of 10 years?
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massedvs.distributedpractice
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Stress the connections among related terms.
Guiding Principle
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Tie new words to old knowledge.
Guiding Principle
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Comprehension is building bridges from the new
to the known. Pearson Johnson
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Maximize the volume of reading that students do.
Guiding Principle
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Stress tools students will need, such as context
and structural analysis.
Guiding Principle
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millimetergeothermaltaxation
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millimetergeothermaltaxation
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millimetergeothermaltaxation
75
millimetergeothermaltaxation
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millimetergeothermaltaxation
77
millimetergeothermaltaxation
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Beware of the limitations of definitions.
Guiding Principle
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Dushanbe
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Dushanbe

• capital city of Tajikistan, in the west of the
  country in the Gissar Valley
• Encarta World English Dictionary

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Dushanbe

• capital city of Tajikistan, in the west of the
  country in the Gissar Valley
• Encarta World English Dictionary

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Minimize rote copying of definitions.
Guiding Principle
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A Closer Look at Definitions
cabbage
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Synonyms are sometimes enough to define
adjectives.
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cabbage n.

• a vegetable about as large and wise as a mans
  head
• (Bierce, The Devils Dictionary)
• 2. (Webster)

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an adult female humanDistinguishing
Classfeatures
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What are some of the most effective ways of
teaching vocabulary?
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Some Research-Based Techniques

• Read-Alouds
• Semantic Feature Analysis
• Other Charting Approaches
• Graphic Organizers
• Semantic Maps (webs)
• Word Sorts
• Word Lines
• List-Group-Label
• Possible Sentences

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Read-Alouds
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Semantic Feature Analysis
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humans adult female woman man
o girl o boy o o
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humans adult female woman man
o girl o boy o o
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humans adult female woman man
o girl o boy o o
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humans adult female woman man
o girl o boy o o
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humans adult female woman man
o girl o boy o o
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popinary
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popinary

• a fry cook

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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker o adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker adult female
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cooks fries makes bakes things salads popina
ry o o chef
baker s adult female
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Graphic Organizers
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A graphic organizer is a diagram that shows how
key terms are related.
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Whats so great about them?

• They help kids see abstract content.
• There is little to read.
• They are easy to construct and discuss.
• Technical terms can be taught in clusters.
• They enhance recall and understanding.
• They have an impressive research base.

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Time Lines

• (and other continua)

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Goldilocks finds cottage
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Goldilocks Goldilocks finds cottage eats
porridge
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Goldilocks Goldilocks Goldilocks finds
cottage eats porridge goes upstairs
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1500 1600 1700 1800
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Columbus Pilgrims American reaches
land at RevolutionNorth
America Plymouth begins 1500 1600 1700
1800
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Shakespearean Tragedy Act 1 Exposition Act
2 Complication Act 3 Climax Act 4
Resolution Act 5 Conclusion
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Exposition Complication Climax
Resolution Conclusion
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Exposition Complication Climax
Resolution Conclusion
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Complication
Exposition Complication Climax
Resolution Conclusion
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Climax
Complication
Exposition Complication Climax
Resolution Conclusion
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Climax
Complication
Resolution
Exposition Complication Climax
Resolution Conclusion
127
Rising Action
Climax
Complication
Resolution
Exposition Complication Climax
Resolution Conclusion
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Rising Action
Falling Action
Climax
Complication
Resolution
Exposition Complication Climax
Resolution Conclusion
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egg
larva
adult

• pupa

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How to Find the Area of a Triangle
Right triangle?
Yes
No
Multiply legs
Determine height
Multiply by base
Divide by 2
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Tree Diagrams
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Musical Instruments
134
Musical Instruments
wind nonwind
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Musical Instruments
wind nonwind
brass woodwind
136
Musical Instruments
wind nonwind
brass woodwind string percussion
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Musical Instruments
wind nonwind
brass woodwind string percussion
trumpet clarinet violin drum
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Venn Diagrams
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Liberals Republicans
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Turkeys Doves
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Turkeys Doves
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Turkeys Doves
148
Birds
Turkeys
149
Birds
Turkeys
150
Birds
Turkeys Doves
151
Birds
Turkeys
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Rational Numbers
Integers
153
She named him _____ because she loved
one-syllable words beginning with J.
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Boys Names
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Boys Names
J-words
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Boys Names
One-syllable words
J-words
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Boys Names
Jim
One-syllable words
J-words
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Boys Names
Arthur
Jim
One-syllable words
J-words
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Boys Names
Arthur
Jerry
Jim
One-syllable words
J-words
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Boys Names
Arthur
Jerry
Jim
jabber
One-syllable words
J-words
162
Boys Names
Arthur
Jerry
Jim
jabber
jam
One-syllable words
J-words
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Boys Names
Arthur
Jerry
Jim
jabber
rest
jam
One-syllable words
J-words
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Boys Names
Arthur
Jerry
Ray
Jim
jabber
rest
jam
One-syllable words
J-words
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Blue People
Thin People
Tall People
166
Blue People
Thin People
Tall People
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drugs stimulants depressants alcohol prozac caffei
ne dexadrine
168
drugs
stimulants
depressants
alcohol prozac
caffeine dexadrine
169
drugs
stimulants
depressants
caffeine dexadrine
alcohol prozac
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antennae
leg
thorax
wing
abdomen
Labeled Picture
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Sociograms
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HH
H H H
P P P P P P P P P
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Three Branches of Governmentexecutivelegislativ
ejudicial
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Three Branches of Governmentexecutive
legislative judicial
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executive legislative judicial
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executive legislative judicial
veto
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executive legislative judicial
confirmation
construction
veto
appointment
apportionment
judicial review
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executive legislative judicial
veto, confirmation, appointment, judicial review,
apportionment, construction, override
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A Midsummer Nights Dream
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Hermia DemetriusLysander Helena
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Hermia DemetriusLysander Helena
183
Hermia DemetriusLysander Helena
184
Hermia DemetriusLysander Helena
185
Hermia DemetriusLysander Helena
186
Hermia DemetriusLysander Helena
187
Hermia DemetriusLysander Helena
188
Huckleberry Finn
fan-tods yallerboys mudcat
189
Illinois
Missouri
Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas
Mississippi
Louisiana
190
Hannibal
Illinois

Missouri
Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas
Mississippi
Louisiana
191
Hannibal
Illinois

Missouri
Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas
Mississippi
Louisiana
192
James Roosevelt (1828-1900)
Sara Delano (1855-1941)
Elliott Roosevelt (1860?-94)
Anna Hall (1863-92)
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945)
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962)
Anna James Elliott FDR, Jr. John b.
1906 b. 1907 b. 1910 b. 1914
b. 1916
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Semantic Maps

• (Word Webs)

194
Ben Franklin
195
Founding Father
Ben Franklin
196
Founding Father
Poor Richards Almanac
Ben Franklin
197
Founding Father
Poor Richards Almanac
Ben Franklin
Electricity (kite)
198
Founding Father
Poor Richards Almanac
Ben Franklin
Electricity (kite)
Philadelphia
199
Founding Father
Poor Richards Almanac
Ben Franklin
Invented bifocals
Electricity (kite)
Philadelphia
200
Founding Father
Daylight Savings
Poor Richards Almanac
Ben Franklin
Invented bifocals
Electricity (kite)
Philadelphia
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Merging Webs and Trees

• Web Tree?

206
golf
207
sport
golf
208
sport
golf
Putt-Putt
209
sport
golf
Best ball
Putt-Putt
210
sport
hit ball with implement
golf
Best ball
Putt-Putt
211
sport
hit ball with implement
golf
outdoor
Best ball
Putt-Putt
212
sport
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
outdoor
Best ball
Putt-Putt
213
sport
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
rich people
outdoor
Best ball
Putt-Putt
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sport
kolf?
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
rich people
outdoor
Best ball
Putt-Putt
215
sport
Golfimble
kolf?
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
rich people
outdoor
Best ball
Putt-Putt
216
sport
Golfimble
kolf?
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
outdoor
Best ball
Putt-Putt
217
sport
Golfimble
kolf?
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
outdoor
Best ball
Putt-Putt
218
sport
Golfimble
kolf?
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
outdoor
Best ball
Putt-Putt
219
sport
Golfimble
kolf?
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
outdoor
Best ball
8-ball
Putt-Putt
220
sport
Golfimble
kolf?
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
outdoor
Best ball
8-ball
9-ball
Putt-Putt
221
sport
Golfimble
kolf?
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
bars
outdoor
Best ball
8-ball
9-ball
Putt-Putt
222
sport
Golfimble
kolf?
blue collar
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
bars
outdoor
Best ball
8-ball
9-ball
Putt-Putt
223
sport
wagering
Golfimble
kolf?
blue collar
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
bars
outdoor
Best ball
8-ball
9-ball
Putt-Putt
224
sport
wagering
Golfimble
kolf?
blue collar
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
bars
outdoor
Best ball
8-ball
9-ball
Putt-Putt
225
sport
wagering
Golfimble
kolf?
blue collar
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
bars
outdoor
Best ball
8-ball
9-ball
Putt-Putt
226
sport
wagering
Golfimble
kolf?
blue collar
Tiger
hit ball with implement
golf
pool
rich people
bars
outdoor
Best ball
8-ball
9-ball
Putt-Putt
227
Word Lines
228

229
hot cold
230
hot tepid cold
231
hot tepid cold sweltering

232
hot tepid cold sweltering
chilly
233
hot tepid cold sweltering
chilly
234
Word Sorts
235
Open Sort Categories are not given.
thorax pupa abdomen antennae wing larva adult
head egg leg
236
Closed Sort Parts Stages
237
Closed Sort Parts Stages
thorax pupa abdomen egg wing larva head adu
lt leg antennae
238
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List-Group-Label
240
Possible Sentences
241
connotation denotation sociogram distinguishing
feature distributed practice open sort Dushanbe
242
What can we do to increase childrens
vocabularies in Title I schools?
243
1. Make vocabulary a schoolwide goal

• Amend your plan.
• Establish testable goals.
• Raise consciousness.
• Communicate expectations.

244
2. Provide professional development

• Focus on research-based methods.
• Ensure ties to actual materials.
• Provide follow-up to aid implementation.

245
3. Establish teacher study groups

• Organize groups by grade level.
• Provide time for discussion.
• Reward participation.
• Encourage administrator participation.
• Select resource books.

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4. Consider supplemental and intervention
programs

• Tie their use to assessments.
• Establish guidelines for use.
• Locate product reviews.

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http//oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu
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http//www.fcrr.org
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mmckenna_at_georgiasouthern.edu
http//www.georgiasouthern.edu/ mmckenna