STRENGTH

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STRENGTH

• Do not pray for easy lives. Pray to be stronger
  men! Do not pray for tasks equal to your powers.
  Pray for power equal to your tasks."
• -Phillips Brooks

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CHAPTER 2

• The Chemical basis of Life

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Matter

• Anything that occupies space and has mass.
• Can exist as
• ____________
• ____________
• ____________
• composed of elements
• What are examples of each type of matter?

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What is an element?

• Element- substances that can not be separated
  into smaller substances by natural means.
• 92 of the 112 occur in nature
• 2 additional elements are hypothetical (114, 116)
• And 2 more are not known to exist (113, 115)
• Are referred to by a chemical symbol and are
  organized in the Periodic Table of Elements.

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Elements in Animal Body

• Major Elements- make up 96 of the body
• ___________(O)
• ___________(C)
• ___________ (H)
• ___________ (N)

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Minor Elements

• _______________ (Ca)
• _______________(P)
• _______________ (K)
• _______________(S)
• _______________(Na)
• _______________ (Cl)
• ________________ (Mg)

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Trace Elements

• Silicone (Si)
• Aluminum (Al)
• Iron (Fe)
• Manganese (Mn)
• Fluorine (F)
• Vanadium (V)
• Chromium (Cr)
• Copper (Cu)
• Boron (B)
• Cobalt (Co)
• Zinc (Zn)
• Selenium (Se)
• Molybdenum (Mo)
• Tin (Sn)
• Iodine (I)

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Atoms

• The smallest unit of an element that retains the
  unique properties of that element.
• Composed of 3 subatomic particles
• ___________
• ___________
• ___________

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Protons, Neutrons, Electrons

• Protons and Neutrons are found in the
  _____________________.
• Each proton and neutron has an atomic mass of 1.
• Together protons and neutrons determine the
  __________________of the atom.
• Protons have a _______________ charge.
• Neutrons have ______________charge and are
  considered neutral.
• Electrons have a _____________ charge.
• Net charge of atoms are neutral because have
  equal numbers of protons and electrons.

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Electrons

• Tiny particles that remain in constant motion
  around the nucleus.
• So tiny that their mass does not contribute to
  the atomic weight of the atom.
• Electrons have a ________________ charge.
• Orbit around nucleus

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Electron Shells and how they work

• Pathways around the nucleus where electrons
  orbit
• Only a certain number of electrons can be on each
  path at one time
• If the outermost shell is not full, then an atom
  will be more active in an attempt to fill its
  outermost shell.
• Helium and Neon have full electron shells so are
  considered chemically ___________.

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How the Shells work

• First shell can contain ________ electrons.
• Second shell on can contain _________ electrons.

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Atoms continued

• The atomic number of an atom tells us how many
  ____________ and ____________ it has.
• If an atom loses or gains an electron in an
  attempt to fill its outermost electron shell then
  it becomes positively or negatively charged,
  thereby becoming an _______________.
• If an atom has a different number of neutrons,
  they are called ______________________ of the
  element

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Atomic Number
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Isotopes
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Ions
e-
Na atom 11electrons, 11protons
Na ion 10electrons, 11protons
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Molecules and Compounds

• ___________________- when atoms are joined
  together by chemical bonds. These are the
  smallest particle of a substance that retains the
  properties of the substance.
• _____________________when two or more atoms of
  the same element are joined together.
• _______________- how atoms are attached to one
  another.
• ________________ A substance made up of two or
  more elements.

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Chemical Bonds

• Means that the atoms are sharing or transferring
  electrons between them.
• By sharing or giving away electron, each atom can
  be sure that its outermost shell is full.
• Remember that atoms are constantly trying to
  become more stable.
• Types of chemical bonds
• _________________
• _________________
• _________________

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Covalent Bonds

• Bonds formed when atoms share electrons.
• Classified depending on how many electrons are
  being shared.
• single covalent bond ______ electron is shared
• double covalent bond _____ electrons are
  shared
• triple covalent bond ______ electrons are
  shared
• May be shared equally (nonpolar) or unequally
  (polar).

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Polar Water Molecule

• Shared electrons in a covalently bonded molecule
  may spend more time near one atom than the other
• Shared electrons in water molecule spend more
  time near __________atom than __________ atoms
• Created poles
• Gives molecule a slight _________ charge on H
  side of molecule and slight _________charge on O
  side of molecule

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http//www.youtube.com/watch?vqmgE0w6E6ZI
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Ionic Bonds

• Formed when electrons are transferred from one
  atom to another.
• Transfer causes a ______ charge on the atom that
  gave up the electron and a ____________ charge
  on the atom that receives the electron.
• Since opposites attract, the two atoms stick
  together through electrostatic attraction.

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Electron transferred
Attraction betweenopposite charges
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Types of Ions

• ______________- Ions with a net positive charge.
• _______________Ions with a net negative charge.
• Ions are important in contraction of muscle
  fibers, transmission of nerve impulses, and
  maintenance of water balance.

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Hydrogen Bonds

• Bond between hydrogen atoms already covalently
  bonded in a molecule to oppositely charged
  particles.
• Found between water molecules and DNA to
  stabilize shape.

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Chemical Reactions

• The formation and breaking of chemical bonds.
• Require energy input or release of energy.
• Chemical Equation- reaction is described in
  written form.
• X Y ? Z
• (reactants) (products)
• Arrow indicates direction of the reaction

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Types of Chemical Reactions

• 1. Synthesis Reaction- new and more complex
  molecule is made from simpler chemicals. Example
• 2. Decomposition Reaction- single complex
  chemical is broken down into multiple, simpler,
  chemicals. Example
• 3. Exchange Reaction- certain atoms are
  exchanged between molecules. Combination of
  synthesis and decomposition reaction. Example

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Chemical Reactions Continued

• _____________ reactions require energy.
• ______________ reactions expend or release
  energy.
• _______________have no net energy requirements.
  Energy released from decomposition portion, helps
  with synthesis portion.

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Chemical Reactions Continued

• Factors that influence reaction rates
• ________________________
• ________________________
• __________________-the energy required for the
  reaction to happen.
• Some reactions require presence of a catalyst or
  enzyme
• Reaction speed is increased when catalyst is
  present
• Protein (enzyme)

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Chemical Components of Living Organisms Organic
and Inorganic Compounds

• Inorganic compounds- do not contain hydrocarbon
  groups (H and C bonded together) and often have
  ionic bonding.
• Water
• Salts
• Acids and Bases
• Organic compounds- contain hydrocarbon groups and
  are usually covalently bonded

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Why is water so Important?

• Water is the universal _______________
• ______________- chemicals added to water
• _______________- resulting chemical and water
  mixture
• ________________ (water loving)- chemicals that
  dissolve well or mix with water.
• _________________(water hating)- chemicals or
  molecules that do not mix well with water.
• Water is an ideal ______________________
• Blanketing power allows molecules in water to
  move around and be cushioned from one another.
• Blood
• Urine
• Water has a _______________and a high
  _______________________________
• Easily able to absorb heat.
• Wont evaporate easily.
• Water is used for ________________.

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Salts

• Mineral compounds that have ionic bonds
• In ionic form are called electrolytes-substances
  that have ability to transmit an electrical
  charge.

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Acids and Bases

• ___________- substances that when added to water
  freely release hydrogen ions.
• Called H donors or proton donors
• ___________- alkaline in nature release a
  hydroxyl ion (OH-) when added to water.
• Called proton acceptors
• Acids and Bases are also electrolytes as they can
  transmit electricity when ionized in water.

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The pH Scale

• Ranges from 1-14.
• Lower numbers are the most acidic, higher numbers
  are more alkaline.

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Buffers

• A substance that minimizes the change of the
  acidity of a solution when an acid or base is
  added to the solution.
• By not allowing excessive hydrogen or hydroxyl
  ions to accumulate, buffers help cell maintain
  _______________.

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Organic Molecules

• Molecules that contain carbon.
• Why carbon?-4 outer electrons in outer shell,
  trying to share this to complete outer shell.
• Divided into 4 groups
• _____________________
• Glycogen
• Ribose
• ____________________
• Triglycerides
• Phospholipids
• Steroids
• Prostaglandins
• _____________________
• Globular
• Fibrous
• _____________________
• DNA
• RNA
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

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Carbohydrates

• Used for energy, storage of energy, and cellular
  structures.
• Simple Sugars-________________.
• Glucose and Fructose
• ________________- when two monosaccharides are
  joined together in synthesis reaction.
• _________________- combinations of many
  monosaccharides.
• Glycogen and cellulose

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Some terminology

• _________________- when a macromolecule is formed
  out of a carbohydrate attached to a protein.
• __________________- process of building molecules
  needed for cellular functioning.
• _____________________- Decomposition of
  nutrients.

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Lipids

• Used for energy and stored in fat.
• 4 classes of Lipids
• _________________
• _________________
• _________________
• _________________

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Lipids continued..

• Neutral Fats
• Also called triglycerides or fats.
• Contains three fatty acids and a glycerol
  molecule.
• _________________________- all bonds in the
  hydrocarbon chain are single bonds.
• _________________________- when there are some
  double bonds between the carbon and hydrogen
  atoms.
• __________________________- macromolecule
  composed of proteins and lipids
• __________________________- when triglycerides
  are decomposed.

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• Phospholipids
• Have a glycerol backbone
• Have a lipid bilayer when placed in water.
• ________________ heads are facing water, while
  _______________ tails line up with one another.

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• Steroids
• Take form of four interlocking hydrocarbon rings.
• Are hydrophobic.
• Examples include
• Cholesterol
• Cortisol

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• Eicosanoids
• Lipids formed from a 20 carbon fatty acid and
  ring structure. (hairpin structure)
• Include
• _______________- in inflammation
• _______________- platelet function
• _______________- bronchoconstriction and
  increased mucus production.

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Proteins

• Most abundant organic molecules in the body.
• Have widest variety of functions.
• Catalyze- speed up reactions occurring in the
  body.
• Composed of ___________________

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Amino Acids

• 20 different amino acids used by the body.
• Central carbon is attached to hydrogen atom, an
  amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and a
  side chain.
• Include
• Alanine    Arginine    Asparagine    Aspartic
  acid    Cysteine    Glutamic acid    Glutamine
     Glycine   Histidine    Isoleucine
     Leucine    Lysine    Methionine
     Phenylalanine   Proline    Serine
     Threonine    Tryptophan    Tyrosine
     Valine

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Structure of Proteins

• Shape of protein directly determines its
  function.
• Antibodies- fit together like puzzle to foreign
  invaders.
• Structure is described in four layers
• ____________________- sequence and number of
  amino acids that link together to form the
  peptide chain.
• Secondary Structure- the natural bend of parts of
  the peptide chain as it is formed in three
  dimensions.
• Tertiary Structure- overall shape of a single
  protein molecule.
• Quaternary Structure- when two or more protein
  chains join to form a complex macromolecule.

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• http//www.youtube.com/watch?vOz2x_yxPXwwfeature
  related

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Structural Proteins

• Stable, rigid, water-insoluble proteins that are
  used for adding strength to tissues or cells.
• Aka Fibrous proteins.
• Important in structural framework and physical
  movement.
• Examples include
• _______________
• _______________
• _______________

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Functional Proteins

• Aka Globular proteins.
• Function in chemical reactions, transport of
  molecules, regulation of metabolism, and immune
  system.
• Include
• Hormones
• Antibodies
• Protein-based hormones
• Enzymes

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Enzymes

• Proteins that ___________ or speed up chemical
  reactions.
• Will end in ase
• ______________ the substance that the enzyme
  acts upon.

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Nucleic Acids

• Largest molecule of body
• 2 classes of Nucleic Acids
• _______________________________
• Exists mainly in the nucleus but also
  mitochondria.
• Contains all instructions needed by cell to build
  proteins.
• Coded in segments called __________
• _______________________________
• Transfers the instructions out of the nucleus and
  into the cytoplasm and builds proteins.
• Exists as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.

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Nucleotides

• The molecular building blocks of nucleic acids.
• Are 5 different nucleotides, but all have the
  same structure.
• Are all composed of a 5-Carbon pentose sugar.
• Sugar in DNA is _____________.
• Sugar in RNA is _____________.
• Nucleotides are named for their nitrogen base.
• A,C,T,G,U

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Structure of a nucleotide
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Nucleotides

• A___________-both DNA and RNA
• G___________-both DNA and RNA
• C___________-both DNA and RNA
• T___________-Only in DNA
• U___________- Only in RNA

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Nucleic Acids

• Information needed to produce proteins is based
  on order of the nucleotides in DNA and RNA.
• C-G-T makes amino acid alanine.
• ___________________-long chains of genes combined
  with proteins.

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DNA

• Consists of two parallel strands of nucleotides
  adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
• Connected by hydrogen bonds between specific
  pairings of nucleotides.
• Adenine and __________
• __________ and Cytosine
• Once bound, these two strands twist around one
  another to form a ______________.
• Order of nucleotides is what makes unique genetic
  code of each individual.

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Structure of DNA
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RNA

• Consists of only one strand of nucleotides.
• Does not have thymine, but instead has uracil.
• Pairings are
• Guanine and Cytosine
• Adenine and __________
• Exists in three forms
• tRNA- _________RNA
• Copies information in the DNA molecule
• mRNA- __________RNA
• Carries information out of the nucleus
• rRNA-___________ RNA
• Creates the proteins needed by the body

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ATP

• ____________________- energy of the cells.
• Cells need ATP to fuel or carry out any work.
• _____________________when the cells use up the
  nutrients
• ATP is a RNA nucleotide containing adenine with
  two additional phosphate groups attached.
• When bonds (high energy bonds) between phosphate
  groups are broken, energy is released.
• When phosphate group is lost, resulting molecule
  is adenosine diphosphate (ADP).

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Why is it so important?

• Since we know how these bonds work, we can
  understand how certain things such as drugs and
  chemical reactions in the body occur.
• Will help us later on in digestion of food,
  growth of the body, cellular signaling, and
  transmission of nerve impulses.