Academic English iii

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Academic English iii

• Oct. 1, 2014

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Today

• Argumentative writing (continued)
• - Logical fallacies - opposing arguments
  rebuttals

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Argumentative Writing - Example

• Body paragraph 1
• Cake increases study performance. Elementary
  school students have increasing pressures to do
  well in school as expectations of what they
  should learn and how much they should learn
  change. As a result, elementary school students
  now study more difficult subjects, such as math,
  for longer periods of time. By increasing study
  performance, cake can help students cope with
  these new demands. First, cake has been proven to
  increase concentration. A study found that
  children who eat just one piece of cake per day
  have 30 better concentration than children who
  have no cake (Wonka, 2011). An increase in
  concentration can allow students to cope with
  increased class demands, especially in more
  difficult classes, such as math, which require
  concentration to solve complex problems. Cake
  also has a positive effect on reaction time. The
  chemicals in cake improve the function of the
  reticular formation, allowing cake eaters to more
  quickly process visual and auditory information
  (Jones, 2009). Increased reaction times allow
  students to answer questions faster and to more
  readily understand explanations and examples. By
  providing a much needed increase in study
  performance, cake should clearly be included on
  the daily menu of elementary school cafeterias.

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Reaching Logical Conclusions

• Example 1
• Premise 1 Non-renewable resources do not exist
  in infinite supply.
• Premise 2 Coal is a non-renewable resource.
• Conclusion ?
• - Coal does not exist in infinite supply.

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Reaching Logical Conclusions

• Example 2 It can often take several premises to
  reach a conclusion.
• Premise 1 All monkeys are primates.
• Premise 2 All primates are mammals.
• Premise 3 All mammals are vertebrate animals.
• Conclusion Monkeys are vertebrate animals.

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Using logic in writing

• Simply creating a syllogism
• Premise 1
• Premise 2
• Conclusion
• is not enough to convince all readers.
• 1. Not all readers will automatically follow your
  line of reasoning.
• 2. The elements of the argument needs to be
  expanded.

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Using logic in writing

• To convert a logical syllogism into a written
  argument
• - Present each premise clearly
• - Provide evidence to support each premise
• - Draw a clear connection to the conclusion

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Using logic in writing Example

• Context
• The government in Moronville wants to use
  taxpayer money to construct a new stadium.
• The author of the following argument is opposed
  to this.

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Using logic in writing Example 1

• Authors logic
• Premise 1 Projects funded by taxpayer dollars
  should benefit a majority of the public.
• Premise 2 The proposed stadium constructions
  benefits very few members of the public.
• Conclusion Therefore, the stadium construction
  should not be funded by taxpayer dollars.

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Using logic in writing Example 1

• Authors logic
• Premise 1 Projects funded by taxpayer dollars
  should benefit a majority of the public.
• Premise 2 The proposed stadium constructions
  benefits very few members of the public.
• Conclusion Therefore, the stadium construction
  should not be funded by taxpayer dollars.
• This conclusion is logical. However, if there is
  no elaboration, it may not be persuasive to the
  audience.

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Using logic in writing Example 1

• The author elaborates on the premises (explains
  them adequately) and provides evidence to support
  each premise.

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Logical Fallacies

• When creating an argument, be careful with using
  faulty logic.
• At times, a writer may go off course with his/her
  logic or may write an argument that has no
  logical support.
• In the next few slides, we will examine some
  common logical fallacies

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Logical Fallacies

• Slippery Slope
• Problem based on the premise that if A happens a
  series will follow B, CX, Y, Z. Basically
  saying A Z.
• Topic banning SUVs.
• If we ban SUVs because they are bad for the
  environment, eventually the government will ban
  all cars therefore, we should not ban SUVs.

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Logical Fallacies

• Hasty Generalization
• Problem The conclusion is based on insufficient
  or biased evidence. Basically Rushing to the
  conclusion.
• Even though this is only the first episode, this
  TV show is clearly going to be terrible.

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Logical Fallacies

• Post hoc ergo propter hoc (after this,
  therefore, because of this)
• Problem Conclusions that assumes that if A
  occurred after B, then B must have caused
  A. Basically Assuming that if one event
  follows another, the first event must have caused
  the second.
• I ate some pizza and got sick. Thus, the pizza
  must have made me sick.

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Logical Fallacies

• Genetic Fallacy
• Problem Conclusion is based on an argument that
  the origins of an idea, person, theory, etc.
  determine its value.Basically Drawing a
  conclusion based on premises that are not
  inherently related.
• Volkswagen cars are evil because they were used
  by Hitlers army.

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Logical Fallacies

• Begging the Claim
• Problem The conclusion that needs to be proven
  is already validated in the claim.
• Filthy and polluting oil should be banned.

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Logical Fallacies

• Circular Argument
• Problem Instead of proving the argument, the
  writer re-states the argument. Basically A is
  B because B.
• Barack Obama is a great communicator because he
  speaks effectively.

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Logical Fallacies

• Either/Or
• Problem The conclusion over simplifies the
  argument by reducing it to only two sides or
  choices.
• We can either stop using cars or destroy the
  earth.

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Logical Fallacies

• Ad hominem
• Problem An attack on the character of a person
  (or organization, etc.) rather than on opinions
  or arguments of that person. Basically
  Because youre bad, your argument is invalid.
• Green Peaces strategies are not effective
  because they are all dirty, lazy idiots.

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Logical Fallacies

• Red Herring
• Problem A diversionary tactic that avoids the
  key issues, often avoiding opposing arguments
  instead of addressing them.
• The level of mercury in seafood may be dangerous,
  but what will fishermen do to support their
  families if we cut down on fishing?

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Logical Fallacies

• Moral Equivalence
• Problem Comparing a minor misdeed with a major
  atrocity.
• The parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as
  bad as Hitler.

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Spot the fallacy

• Physical education classes are regularly opposed
  by policy makers who want to promote more
  traditional academic class in school. These
  policy makers are not the most qualified people
  to promote these changes. The issue with policy
  makers opposing physical education classes is
  that most policy makers tend to be
  promotion-seeking workers whose primary interest
  is moving ahead of everyone else. They will often
  resort to using unethical methods to attain
  advancement.

ad hominem
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Spot the fallacy

• Parties insisting on a decrease in physical
  education classes support their views with
  research data that indicate students math and
  language skills have dropped drastically since
  more physical education classes were added to the
  curriculum. While this may have some value, the
  parties calling for less physical education
  classes ignore the fact that gym teachers have
  studied just as hard as other teachers and are a
  valuable component of the education system. What
  they teach has significant value.

red herring
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Spot the fallacy

• Many people argue that sports should not be part
  of the school curriculum. However, removing
  sports from the curriculum will have dangerous
  consequences. Sports are one of the best ways to
  encourage children to be physically active.
  Removing sports from the curriculum will decrease
  childrens interest in exercising and will lead
  to more obese children.

slippery slope
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Spot the fallacy

• While eager parents often assert that more
  academic classes, like math and science, should
  take precedence over physical education class
  because those classes have more value, they
  ignore the fact that physical education class has
  real-world value for students by teaching team
  work. Team work is a skill required in most jobs
  because it is a necessary skill at work. Students
  learn this skill through playing team sports like
  basketball and soccer in gym class.

circular argument
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Argumentative Writing How to

• Organizing your ideas Make an outline
• Organization type A
• Introduction (thesis statement)
• Pro argument 1
• Pro argument 2
• Pro argument 3
• Counterargument(s) and refutation 2
  paragraphsConclusion

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Argumentative Writing How to

• Organizing your ideas Make an outline
• Organization type B
• Introduction (thesis statement)Counterargument(s)
  and refutation 2 paragraphs
• Pro argument 1
• Pro argument 2
• Pro argument 3
• Conclusion

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Opposing arguments (counter-arguments)

• A view/opinion/idea OPPOSED to your position.
• Some may ask Wouldnt this WEAKEN the
  argument?
• - If used improperly,
• OF COURSE.
• BUT

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Opposing arguments (counter-arguments)

• If chosen well, counter-arguments make YOUR
  argument stronger
• 1. It gives the writer the chance to respond to
  the readers possible objections to the writers
  ideas BEFORE they even finish reading.
• 2. It also demonstrates that the writer is a
  reasonable person who has considered both sides
  of the argument.

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How to present an opposing argument

• You should express the counter-argument
  objectively.
• (do not present it using overly negative
  language)
• i.e., Some people foolishly believe that
• For some crazy reason, it is thought
  that Unbelievably, some assert that
• Remember The point is to show the reader that
  you have considered both sides carefully (and
  seriously).

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How to present an opposing argument

• An opposing argument can usually be presented in
  a sentence (or a few sentences).
• The important thing is to make sure you have
  presented the opposing argument clearly and with
  enough detail that it is understandable to the
  reader.
• - If an opposing argument is not
  described adequately, it will weaken the
  rebuttal. - Doing so also makes the writer
  appear overly biased or under-prepared to argue
  the issue.

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To present an opposing argument in writing

• Here are some typical introduction phrases
• Many people believe/argue/feel/think/suppose/etc.
  that opposing argument.
• i.e., Many people argue that chocolate ice cream
  should be banned from the KMU campus because it
  makes students too happy, which creates a
  disruptive environment.
• Many people assert that chocolate ice cream
  should be banned from the KMU campus because

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To present an opposing argument in writing

• Here are some typical introduction phrases
• It is often thought/imagined/supposed/etc. that
  opposing argument
• i.e., It is often supposed that chocolate ice
  cream is dangerous because it makes students too
  happy, which creates a disruptive environment.
• It is often thought that chocolate ice cream
  is dangerous because it makes students too happy.

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To present an opposing argument in writing

• Here are some typical introduction phrases
• It would be easy to/One could easily
  think/believe/imagine/suppose/etc. that
  opposing argument
• i.e., One could easily believe that chocolate
  ice cream is dangerous because it makes students
  too happy, thus creating a disruptive
  environment
• It would be easy to suppose that chocolate ice
  cream is dangerous because it makes students too
  happy.

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To present an opposing argument in writing

• Here are some typical introduction phrases
• It might seem/appear/look/etc. as if opposing
  argument
• i.e., It might seem as if chocolate ice cream is
  dangerous because it makes students too happy.
• It might appear as if chocolate ice cream is
  dangerous because it makes students too happy.

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Refuting an opposing argument (rebuttal)

• One of the most effective ways to refute/rebut an
  opposing argument is to show that it is based on
  faulty assumptions, logic, or ideas.
• - The facts are wrong
• - The analysis is incorrect.
• - The argument is based on values that are
  not acceptable.

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Rebuttals - Examples

• NOTE These examples are related to a claim from
• James Loewens book, Lies My Teacher Told Me
  (1995).
• Our position To function adequately in society,
  students must learn what causes racism.
• Thesis Despite objections to this claim, to
  function adequately in society, students must
  learn what causes racism.

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• Opposing argument Racism is a thing of the past
  therefore, students dont need to bother with it.
• Some people argue that racism is a thing of the
  past therefore, students dont need to bother
  with it.
• - This is faulty factual assumption.
• What is the faulty (wrong) assumption here?
• Racism is a thing of the past.

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• Opposing argument Some people argue that
  racism is a thing of the past therefore,
  students dont need to bother with it.
• This is faulty factual assumption.
• Racism is a thing of the past.
• Possible rebuttal
• One response could be to give facts (evidence)
  that show that racism continues to be a problem.

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• Opposing argument Some people argue that
  racism is a thing of the past therefore,
  students dont need to bother with it.
• A second faulty assumption here
• - Students dont need to think about what was
  is in the past.
• Possible rebuttal
• - Another possible response could be to show that
  students must understand that past as well as the
  present to function adequately in society.

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Remember

• You may also look for logical fallacies in
  opposing arguments.
• - i.e,. Red herring, ad hominem, either/or,
  slippery slope.

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How to present a rebuttal

• Now that you have
• a) identified an opposing argument b)
  determined how to refute it
• it is now time to persuade the reader away from
  the opposing argument by writing an effective
  rebuttal (refutation).

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How to present a rebuttal

• If an opposing argument requires clear signaling,
  then so does the rebuttal (perhaps even more
  importantly!).
• In stating a counter-argument, your essay has
  made a 180 turn away from your claim, for the
  rebuttal, it is time to do another 180 to
  complete your circle (return to YOUR claim).
• The readers will benefit from a clear signal that
  the rebuttal will begin.

Your argument
opposing argument
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Transition from opposing argument into rebuttal

• Here are some typical introduction phrases
• What this argument overlooks/fails to
  consider/does not take into account is ...
• i.e., What this argument fails to consider is
  that racism continues to be a problem in school
  and in everyday life (SOURCE).

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Transition from opposing argument into rebuttal

• Here are some typical introduction phrases
• This view seems/looks/sounds/appears.
  convincing/plausible/persuasive/etc. at first,
  but ...
• i.e., This view appears plausible at first, but
  the reality is racism continues to be a problem
  in school and in everyday life (SOURCE).

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Transition from opposing argument into rebuttal

• Here are some typical introduction phrases
• While this position is popular, it is not
  supported by the facts/not logical/impractical/etc
  .
• i.e., While this position is popular, it is not
  supported by the facts.

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Transition from opposing argument into rebuttal

• Here are some typical introduction phrases
• Although the core of this claim is valid, it
  suffers from a flaw in its reasoning/application/
  etc.
• i.e., Although the core of this claim is valid,
  it suffers from a flaw in its reasoning.

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• Opposing argument Some people argue that racism
  is a thing of the past therefore, students dont
  need to bother with it.
• - Faulty assumption
• Rebuttal provide evidence that demonstrates that
  racism continues to be a problem.
• What this argument fails to consider is that
  racism continues to be a problem in school and in
  everyday life (SOURCE). Every year, hundreds of
  news stories report on conflicts that arise due
  to racial issues. In addition, hate groups, such
  as the Ku Klux Klan continue to exist

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Rebuttals

• Opposing argument Learning about racism might
  make students more racist.
• One could believe that learning about racism
  might make students more racist.
• Problem? faulty analytical assumption.
• - Assuming that learning ABOUT racism can MAKE
  you racist.

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Rebuttals

• One may believe that learning about racism might
  make students more racist.
• This is faulty analytical assumption.
• - Assuming that learning ABOUT racism can MAKE
  you racist.
• Response
• The response could state that understanding the
  causes of a problem is not the same as causing or
  creating the problem.

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Rebuttals

• Opposing argument Who cares if students are
  racist?
• Some people may ask the question, who cares if
  students are racist?
• Problem? - This is an example of faulty values.
• What is the faulty value here?
• - Assuming that people dont care about students
  being racist.

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Rebuttals

• Some people may ask the question, who cares if
  students are racist?
• This opposing argument is based on an assumed
  value that the majority of readers probably do
  not share.
• The response would be to point out this value,
  and state why it is not believed that most
  readers share this value.
• The key is to base your arguments on values that
  MOST readers are likely to share (there are bound
  to be a few racists out there, sadly).

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Rebuttals

• Opposing argument Previous generations didnt
  study the causes of racism, so why should we
  start now?
• Some people may assert that previous
  generations didnt study the causes of racism, so
  why should we start now?
• Response
• The response here would be to show that previous
  generations did not function adequately in
  society, because they had a lot of problems with
  racism (i.e., segregation and more hidden forms
  of discrimination).

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Rebuttals

• Opposing argument Previous generations didnt
  study the causes of racism, so why should we
  start now?
• Response
• The response here would be to show that previous
  generations did not function adequately in
  society, because they had a lot of problems with
  racism (i.e., segregation and more hidden forms
  of discrimination).
• Therefore, the fact that previous generations did
  NOT learn about causes of racism (evidence)
  supports the claim that students DO need to learn
  what causes racism.

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Rebuttals

• Opposing argument Students are already familiar
  with racism they dont need to study it in
  school.
• It is often stated that students are already
  familiar with racism they do not need to study
  it in school.
• Problem? While this may be true, it is
  irrelevant.Our claim is not that students need
  to learn ABOUT racism (that is assumed many
  students already know about racism) our claim is
  that students need to learn what CAUSES racism.

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Choosing opposing arguments

• Obviously, some counter-arguments are better than
  others.
• You want to use ones that are at least somewhat
  persuasive.
• You dont gain anything by rebutting
  counter- arguments that no one believes!

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Choosing opposing arguments

• Two things to look for in counter-arguments are
• 1. Plausibility (could a reasonable person
  possibly believe this opposing argument?)
• 2. Popularity (is it a well-known argument?)

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Choosing opposing arguments

• From our previous examples, which would be
  strongest?
• Some people argue that racism is a thing of the
  past therefore, students dont need to bother
  with it.
• Learning about racism might make students more
  racist.
• Who cares if students are racist?
• Previous generations didnt study the causes of
  racism, so why should we start now?
• Students are already familiar with racism they
  dont need to study it in school.

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Simple rebuttal form

• Some people assert/Opponents say opposing
  argument
• Howeverbegin rebuttal
• Because reason evidence
• Thereforeconnect reason to rebuttal

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Simple rebuttal form

• Opponents to public smoking say that smoking is
  harmful for nonsmokers. However, this argument
  assumes that smokers are responsible for the
  health of non-smokers. If nonsmokers want to
  avoid cigarette smoke, they can walk away from it
  because nonsmokers should look out for their own
  health, as health is a personal responsibility.
  Therefore, it is not the responsibility of
  smokers to protect nonsmokers.

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Announcements

• 1. Bring completed first draft of Paper 1 to next
  class ? use the polishing sheet available on
  the website.2. Check website Files section for
  more information about argumentative writing.
• 3. Pick up your journal outside my office any
  time from 230 600 today. ? this is the
  only chance this week to get your journal back.