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Title: DO NOW


1
DO NOW
  • Briefly describe the three parts of the
    Atkinson-Shiffrin processing model IN YOUR OWN
    WORDS!

2
Memory Part II
  • AP Psychology Ms. Desgrosellier 3.15.2010

3
MEMORY TEST
  • Get out a blank piece of paper.
  • DO NOT write down anything while looking at the
    next list.
  • You will have 30 seconds to memorize as much as
    you can.

4
MEMORY TEST
  • Milk, eggs, butter, fruit, cheese, mustard, soda
    pop, ice cream, bread, pizza

5
MEMORY TEST
  • Now write down everything you can remember.
  • What effects do we see?

6
Sensory Memory
  • Objective SWBAT contrast two types of sensory
    memory.

7
Sensory Memory
  • iconic memory a momentary sensory memory of
    visual stimuli.
  • A photographic or picture-image memory lasting no
    more than a few tenths of a second.

8
Sensory Memory
  • echoic memory a momentary sensory memory of
    auditory stimuli
  • If attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can
    still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

9
Working/Short-Term Memory
  • Objective SWBAT describe the duration and
    working capacity of short-term memory.

10
Working/Short-Term Memory
  • Unless our working memory meaningfully encodes or
    rehearses information, it quickly disappears from
    our short-term store.
  • Research has shown that without active
    processing, short-term memories have a limited
    life.

11
Working/Short-Term Memory
  • Our short-term memory holds only about 7 items at
    a time (plus or minus 2).
  • Short-term recall is slightly better for random
    numbers than for letters.

12
Long-Term Memory
  • Objective SWBAT describe the capacity and
    duration of long-term memory.

13
Long-Term Memory
  • Our ability for storing long-term memories is
    essentially limitless.
  • Research has shown that memories dont live in
    just one place in the brain.

14
Long-Term Memory
  • Also, forgetting occurs as new experiences
    interfere with our retrieval and as the physical
    memory trace decays.
  • Research with hamsters showed that even stopping
    electrical activity in the brain did not erase
    memories.

15
Synaptic Changes
  • Objective SWBAT discuss the synaptic changes
    that accompany memory formation and storage.

16
Synaptic Changes
  • Research using the Aplysia, the Californian sea
    snail, has focused on neurons because they have
    large, easily accessible nerve cells.
  • When learning occurs, the snail releases more of
    the neurotransmitter serotonin at certain
    synapses.
  • These synapses then become more effective at
    transmitting signals.

17
Synaptic Changes
18
Synaptic Changes
  • Increases synaptic efficiency makes for more
    efficient neural circuits.
  • e.g. less prompting to release its
    neurotransmitter or increased number of
    neurotransmitter receptor sites.

19
Synaptic Changes
  • Increases synaptic efficiency makes for more
    efficient neural circuits.
  • long-term potentiation (LTP) an increase in a
    synapses firing potential after brief, rapid
    stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for
    learning and memory.

20
Synaptic Changes
  • This has lead pharmaceutical companies to
    research on memory-boosting drugs.

21
Synaptic Changes
  • After LTP has occurred, passing an electric
    current through the brain wont disrupt old
    memories.
  • The current will wipe out very recent memories.

22
Synaptic Changes
  • After LTP has occurred, passing an electric
    current through the brain wont disrupt old
    memories.
  • This also happens in organisms after being hit in
    the head, people falling asleep, or athletes who
    are knocked out.

23
Synaptic Changes
  • After LTP has occurred, passing an electric
    current through the brain wont disrupt old
    memories.
  • The information in short-term memory did not have
    time to consolidate into long-term memory.

24
Stress Hormones and Memory
  • Objective SWBAT discuss some ways stress
    hormones can affect memory.

25
Stress Hormones and Memory
  • Stress hormones that are produced when organisms
    are excited or stressed make more glucose energy
    available to fuel the brain.

26
Stress Hormones and Memory
  • The amygdala (emotion processing clusters in the
    limbic system), boost activity in the brains
    memory-forming areas.
  • This can result in certain events being seared
    in the brain while other neutral events are left
    out.

27
Stress Hormones and Memory
28
Stress Hormones and Memory
  • Stronger emotional experiences make for stronger,
    more reliable memories.
  • Weaker emotions mean weaker memories.

29
Stress Hormones and Memory
  • Emotion-triggered hormonal changes help explain
    why we can long remember exciting or shocking
    events.
  • This is also helped by the fact that many people
    relive and rehearse these events.

30
Stress Hormones and Memory
  • When stress is prolonged (e.g. in abuse or combat
    situations), neural connections can be eaten away
    and the hippocampus can actually shrink.

31
Stress Hormones and Memory
  • Also, when stress hormones are flowing, older
    memories may be blocked.
  • e.g. blanking out when speaking in front of an
    audience.

32
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
  • Objective SWBAT distinguish between implicit and
    explicit memory, and identify the main brain
    structure associated with each.

33
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
  • amnesia the loss of memory.
  • Studied frequently in the study of memory.
  • Patients with amnesia can be classically
    conditioned, but they do all these things with no
    awareness of having learned them.

34
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
  • implicit memory retention independent of
    conscious recollection.
  • Also called procedural memory.
  • The unconscious capacity for learning.

35
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
  • explicit memory memory of facts and experiences
    that one can consciously know and declare.
  • Also called declarative memory.

36
The Hippocampus
  • hippocampus a neural center that is located in
    the limbic system and helps process explicit
    memories for storage.

37
The Hippocampus
38
The Hippocampus
  • Using brain scans while people are forming a
    memory, activity is seen in the hippocampus and
    certain areas of the frontal lobe.
  • The hippocampus is also activated during recall
    of words (explicit memory).

39
The Hippocampus
  • Damage to the hippocampus messes up certain types
    of memory.
  • You have two hippocampuses, just above each ear
    and about an inch and a half in.

40
DO NOW (3.17.10)
  • What role does the synapse play in memory?
  • What role does the hippocampus play?

41
The Hippocampus
  • Damage to the left hippocampus cause trouble
    remembering verbal information, but no issues
    recalling visual designs and locations.
  • Damage to the right hippocampus causes the
    reverse problem.

42
The Hippocampus
  • Subregions of the hippocampus activate for
    different tasks, like learning to associate names
    with faces, or using spatial mnemonics.
  • The rear area for spatial memory gets bigger in
    London cab drivers who has been navigating the
    city streets.

43
The Hippocampus
  • Monkeys and people who lose their hippocampus
    lost most of their recall for things learned
    during the preceding month, but older memories
    remain intact.

44
The Hippocampus
  • It seems to act as a loading dock for
    registering and temporarily storing elements of a
    remembered episode, like smell, feel, sound, and
    location.
  • Then older memories are shifted into long-term
    storage.

45
The Hippocampus
  • It is active during slow-wave sleep, as memories
    are processed and filed for later retrieval.
  • The greater the hippocampuss activity during
    sleep after a training exercise, the better the
    next days memory.

46
The Hippocampus
  • Brain scans show that different memories activate
    different parts of the frontal and temporal
    lobes.
  • e.g. recalling telephone numbers and holding them
    in working memory activates a region in the left
    frontal cortex.

47
The Hippocampus
  • Brain scans show that different memories activate
    different parts of the frontal and temporal
    lobes.
  • e.g. recalling a party scene would more likely
    active a region of the right hemisphere.

48
The Hippocampus
  • This has helped prove that our memories are
    stored in more than one place.
  • Amnesia patients may remember fragments of
    memories, but have lost the ability to assemble
    them into a whole.

49
The Cerebellum
  • The cerebellum extends out from the rear of the
    brainstem.
  • It plays a key role in forming and storing the
    implicit memories created by classical
    conditioning.

50
The Cerebellum
51
The Cerebellum
  • Humans with a damaged cerebellum are incapable of
    developing certain conditioned reflexes, such as
    associating a tone with a puff of air.

52
The Cerebellum
  • The explicit-implicit memory system helps explain
    infantile amnesia.
  • Our conscious minds are blank because we index so
    much of our explicit memory by words that
    non-speaking children have not learned, but also
    because the hippocampus is one of the last brain
    structures to mature.

53
RETRIEVAL GETTING INFORMATION OUT
  • Recall, Recognition, and Relearning
  • Objective SWBAT contrast the recall,
    recognition, and relearning measures of memory.

54
Recall, Recognition, and Relearning
  • recall a measure of memory in which the person
    must retrieve information learned earlier.
  • e.g. a fill-in-the-blank test.

55
Recall, Recognition, and Relearning
  • recognition a measure of memory in which the
    person need only identify items previously
    learned.
  • e.g. multiple-choice test.

56
Recall, Recognition, and Relearning
  • relearning a memory measure that assesses the
    amount of time saved when learning material for a
    second time.

57
Retrieval Cues
  • Objective SWBAT explain how retrieval cues can
    help us access stored memories, and describe the
    process of priming.

58
Retrieval Cues
  • retrieval cues anchor points you can use to
    access the target information when you want to
    retrieve it later.
  • the other bits of information that are associated
    to specific memories, like tags, hints, or
    identifying marks on the target information.

59
Retrieval Cues
  • E.g. your surroundings, mood, seating position,
    etc.

60
Retrieval Cues
  • The more retrieval cues you have, the better your
    chance of finding a route to the suspended
    memory.
  • Mnemonic devices provide handy retrieval cues.

61
Retrieval Cues
  • Priming the activation, often unconsciously, of
    particular associations in memory.
  • It is often memoryless memory memory without
    explicit remembering (it happens unconsciously).

62
Context Effects
  • Objective SWBAT cite some ways that context can
    affect retrieval.

63
Context Effects
  • Putting yourself back in the context where you
    experienced something can prime your memory for
    retrieval.
  • Research has even shown that taking an exam in
    the same room where you are taught may help
    increase your memory a little.
  • E.g. retracing your steps to find a lost item

64
Context Effects
  • Déjà vu that eerie sense that Ive experienced
    this before.
  • Cues from the current situation may
    subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
    experience.

65
DO NOW
  • Prepare your reading notes to be checked.
  • SILENTLY read the quarter sheet on your desk.
  • DO NOT share it or talk about it with your
    neighbor (Ms. Desgrosellier is looking for YOUR
    unbiased opinion).

66
How fast?
67
Context Effects
  • Déjà vu
  • If we have been in a similar situation, the
    current situation may be loaded with cues that
    unconsciously retrieve the earlier experience.
  • Or a situation might seem familiar when
    moderately similar to several events.

68
Moods and Memories
  • Objective SWBAT describe the effects of internal
    states on retrieval.

69
Moods and Memories
  • Events in the past may have caused a specific
    emotion that later can prime us to recall its
    associated events.

70
Moods and Memories
  • state-dependent memory what we learn in one
    state (e.g. joyful or sad) is sometimes more
    easily recalled when we are again in that state.
  • What people learn when depressed or drunk,
    however, they dont recall well in any state.

71
Moods and Memories
  • state-dependent memory what we learn in one
    state (e.g. joyful or sad) is sometimes more
    easily recalled when we are again in that state.
  • Depression disrupts encoding and alcohol disrupts
    storage.

72
Moods and Memories
  • mood-congruent memory the tendency to recall
    experiences that are consistent with ones
    current good or bad mood.

73
Moods and Memories
  • mood-congruent memory
  • Some research has shown that people who are
    currently depressed see their parents rejecting,
    punitive, and guilt promoting, while formally
    depressed people see their parents much the same
    as people who have never been depressed.

74
Moods and Memories
  • mood-congruent memory
  • Moods also influence how we interpret others
    behavior and create mood bias.

75
Moods and Memories
  • Your moods effect on retrieval helps explain why
    moods persist.
  • When your happy, you recall happy events and see
    the world as a happy place, which prolongs the
    good mood (and vice versa).

76
FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
  • Objective SWBAT explain why we should value our
    ability to forget, and distinguish three general
    ways our memory fails us.

77
FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
  • Being able to forget things allows us to clear
    out unnecessary mental clutter in our memories.

78
FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
  • Memory researcher Daniel Schacter outlines seven
    ways our memories fail us
  • Three sins of forgetting
  • absent-mindedness inattention to details
    produces encoding failure.
  • transience storage decay over time.
  • blocking inaccessibility of stored information.

79
FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
  • Three sins of distortion
  • misattribution confusing the source of
    information.
  • suggestibility the lingering effects of
    misinformation.
  • bias belief-colored recollections.

80
FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
  • One sin of intrusion
  • persistence unwanted memories.

81
FORGETTING
  • Encoding Failure
  • Objective SWBAT discuss the role of encoding
    failure in forgetting.

82
Encoding Failure
  • We cannot remember what we fail to encode because
    the information never enters long-term memory.

83
Encoding Failure
  • Age can affect encoding efficiency brain areas
    used for encoding are less responsive in older
    adults.
  • This decline in encoding helps explain
    age-related memory decline (in recall).
  • However, recognition in older adults stays about
    the same.

84
Encoding Failure
  • Encoding failure also comes from our selective
    attention to particular details.

85
Storage Decay
  • Objective SWBAT discuss the concept of storage
    decay, and describe Ebbinghaus forgetting curve.

86
Storage Decay
  • Forgetting curve From Ebbinghauss research, it
    indicates that much of what we learn we may
    quickly forget.
  • This led to a psychological law the course of
    forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off
    with time.
  • One explanation for the forgetting curve is a
    gradual fading of the physical memory trace.

87
Storage Decay
88
Retrieval Failure
  • It is possible that memory failure occurs because
    you cannot access your properly encoded and
    stored memories.
  • You may just lack the information needed to look
    it up and retrieve it.
  • Retrieval cues may help retrieval.
  • These problems contribute to older adults memory
    problems.

89
Interference
  • Objective SWBAT contrast proactive and
    retroactive interference, and explain how they
    can cause retrieval failure.

90
Interference
  • Learning some items may interfere with retrieving
    others, especially when the items are similar.
  • Caused when old and new information compete with
    each other.

91
Interference
  • proactive interference the disruptive effect of
    prior learning on the recall of new information.
  • If you get a new phone number, your memory of the
    old one may interfere.

92
Interference
  • retroactive interference the disruptive effect
    of new learning on the recall of old information.
  • Learning new classmates names may interfere with
    remembering old ones.

93
Interference
  • You can minimize retroactive interference by
    reducing the number of interfering events (e.g.
    going to sleep shortly after learning new
    information).
  • Positive transfer when old information can
    facilitate our learning of new information.

94
DO NOW
  • Get out your last set of notes on memory. We will
    be wrapping up this section today.
  • Note any questions you would like to ask Ms. D
    about your midterm. She will answer them today.

95
Motivated Forgetting
  • Objective SWBAT summarize Freuds concept of
    repression, and state whether this view is
    reflected in current memory research.

96
Motivated Forgetting
  • repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic
    defense mechanism that banishes from
    consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
    feelings, and memories.
  • Proposed by Sigmund Freud.

97
Motivated Forgetting
  • While many people, including therapists, believe
    in repression, more and more memory researchers
    think repression rarely, if ever occurs.
  • Research has shown that emotions and associated
    stress hormones strengthen memories.
  • However, does this apply to horrible events?

98
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
  • Misinformation and Imagination Effects
  • Objective SWBAT explain how misinformation and
    imagination can distort our memory of an event.

99
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
  • misinformation effect incorporating misleading
    information into ones memory of an event.

100
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
  • Research by Elizabeth Loftus
  • E.g. Shown a picture of a car accident, and then
    asked how fast were the cars going when they hit
    each other? vs. smashed into each other?

101
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
  • Imagining nonexistent actions and events can
    create false memories.
  • Imagined events later seem more familiar,
    familiar things seem more real, and the more
    vividly people can imagine things, the more
    likely they are to inflate their imaginations
    into memories.

102
Source Amnesia
  • Objective SWBAT describe source amnesias
    contribution to false memories.

103
Source Amnesia
  • source amnesia attributing to the wrong source
    an event we have experienced, heard about, read
    about, or imagined.
  • Also called source misattribution.
  • This is a cause of many false memories.

104
Source Amnesia
  • source amnesia attributing to the wrong source
    an event we have experienced, heard about, read
    about, or imagined.
  • Also called source misattribution.
  • This is a cause of many false memories.

105
Discerning True and False Memories
  • Objective SWBAT list some differences and
    similarities between true and false memories.

106
Discerning True and False Memories
  • True memories
  • are like perceptions of the past.
  • have more detail than false memories.

107
Discerning True and False Memories
  • False memories
  • are more restricted to the gist of the supposed
    event.
  • created by suggested misinformation and
    misattributed sources may feel as real as true
    memories and can be just as persistent.

108
Discerning True and False Memories
  • In eye-witness testimonies, the more confident
    and consistent a witness, the more persuasive.
  • However, they are not necessarily more accurate.

109
Discerning True and False Memories
  • Hypnotically refreshed memories can easily
    incorporate errors from the hypnotists leading
    questions.

110
Discerning True and False Memories
  • Cognitive interview technique a new way for
    police to interview eye-witnesses.
  • They first visualize the scene to active
    retrieval cues.
  • Then the witness tells in detail and without
    interruption every point recalled (no matter how
    trivial).

111
Discerning True and False Memories
  • Cognitive interview technique a new way for
    police to interview eye-witnesses.
  • Only then does the detective ask follow-up
    questions.
  • This technique increases accurate recall by some
    50.

112
Childrens Eyewitness Recall Repressed or
Constructed Memories of Abuse
  • Objective SWBAT give arguments supporting and
    rejecting the position that very young childrens
    reports of abuse are reliable. 
  • Objective SWBAT discuss the controversy over
    reports of repressed and recovered memories of
    childhood sexual abuse.

113
Childrens Eyewitness Recall Repressed or
Constructed Memories of Abuse
  • With both of these topics, please refer to your
    book.
  • Major takeaways There is no evidence that
    concretely says that you should always believe or
    disbelieve childrens testimony, or repressed or
    constructed memories of abuse.

114
Childrens Eyewitness Recall Repressed or
Constructed Memories of Abuse
  • Children can be reliable and fallible.
  • Abuse does happen!
  • Psychologists still debate about the reliability
    of childrens testimonies and repression.

115
Improving Memory
  • Objective SWBAT explain how an understanding of
    memory can contribute to effective study
    techniques.

116
Improving Memory
  • Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
  • Overlearn!
  • Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking
    about the material.

117
Improving Memory
  • Make the material personally meaningful.
  • To remember a list of unfamiliar items, use
    mnemonic devices.
  • Refresh your memory by activating retrieval cues.
  • Recall events while they are fresh, before you
    encounter possible misinformation.

118
Improving Memory
  • Minimize interference study before sleeping do
    not schedule back-to-back study sessions for
    topics likely to cause interference.
  • Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and
    to help determine what you do not yet know.
  • Without self-testing, you can become
    overconfident!
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