Title: DO NOW
1DO NOW
- Briefly describe the three parts of the
Atkinson-Shiffrin processing model IN YOUR OWN
WORDS!
2Memory Part II
- AP Psychology Ms. Desgrosellier 3.15.2010
3MEMORY TEST
- Get out a blank piece of paper.
- DO NOT write down anything while looking at the
next list. - You will have 30 seconds to memorize as much as
you can.
4MEMORY TEST
- Milk, eggs, butter, fruit, cheese, mustard, soda
pop, ice cream, bread, pizza
5MEMORY TEST
- Now write down everything you can remember.
- What effects do we see?
6Sensory Memory
- Objective SWBAT contrast two types of sensory
memory.
7Sensory Memory
- iconic memory a momentary sensory memory of
visual stimuli. - A photographic or picture-image memory lasting no
more than a few tenths of a second.
8Sensory Memory
- echoic memory a momentary sensory memory of
auditory stimuli - If attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can
still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
9Working/Short-Term Memory
- Objective SWBAT describe the duration and
working capacity of short-term memory.
10Working/Short-Term Memory
- Unless our working memory meaningfully encodes or
rehearses information, it quickly disappears from
our short-term store. - Research has shown that without active
processing, short-term memories have a limited
life.
11Working/Short-Term Memory
- Our short-term memory holds only about 7 items at
a time (plus or minus 2). - Short-term recall is slightly better for random
numbers than for letters.
12Long-Term Memory
- Objective SWBAT describe the capacity and
duration of long-term memory.
13Long-Term Memory
- Our ability for storing long-term memories is
essentially limitless. - Research has shown that memories dont live in
just one place in the brain.
14Long-Term Memory
- Also, forgetting occurs as new experiences
interfere with our retrieval and as the physical
memory trace decays. - Research with hamsters showed that even stopping
electrical activity in the brain did not erase
memories.
15Synaptic Changes
- Objective SWBAT discuss the synaptic changes
that accompany memory formation and storage.
16Synaptic Changes
- Research using the Aplysia, the Californian sea
snail, has focused on neurons because they have
large, easily accessible nerve cells. - When learning occurs, the snail releases more of
the neurotransmitter serotonin at certain
synapses. - These synapses then become more effective at
transmitting signals.
17Synaptic Changes
18Synaptic Changes
- Increases synaptic efficiency makes for more
efficient neural circuits. - e.g. less prompting to release its
neurotransmitter or increased number of
neurotransmitter receptor sites.
19Synaptic Changes
- Increases synaptic efficiency makes for more
efficient neural circuits. - long-term potentiation (LTP) an increase in a
synapses firing potential after brief, rapid
stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for
learning and memory.
20Synaptic Changes
- This has lead pharmaceutical companies to
research on memory-boosting drugs.
21Synaptic Changes
- After LTP has occurred, passing an electric
current through the brain wont disrupt old
memories. - The current will wipe out very recent memories.
22Synaptic Changes
- After LTP has occurred, passing an electric
current through the brain wont disrupt old
memories. - This also happens in organisms after being hit in
the head, people falling asleep, or athletes who
are knocked out.
23Synaptic Changes
- After LTP has occurred, passing an electric
current through the brain wont disrupt old
memories. - The information in short-term memory did not have
time to consolidate into long-term memory.
24Stress Hormones and Memory
- Objective SWBAT discuss some ways stress
hormones can affect memory.
25Stress Hormones and Memory
- Stress hormones that are produced when organisms
are excited or stressed make more glucose energy
available to fuel the brain.
26Stress Hormones and Memory
- The amygdala (emotion processing clusters in the
limbic system), boost activity in the brains
memory-forming areas. - This can result in certain events being seared
in the brain while other neutral events are left
out.
27Stress Hormones and Memory
28Stress Hormones and Memory
- Stronger emotional experiences make for stronger,
more reliable memories. - Weaker emotions mean weaker memories.
29Stress Hormones and Memory
- Emotion-triggered hormonal changes help explain
why we can long remember exciting or shocking
events. - This is also helped by the fact that many people
relive and rehearse these events.
30Stress Hormones and Memory
- When stress is prolonged (e.g. in abuse or combat
situations), neural connections can be eaten away
and the hippocampus can actually shrink.
31Stress Hormones and Memory
- Also, when stress hormones are flowing, older
memories may be blocked. - e.g. blanking out when speaking in front of an
audience.
32Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
- Objective SWBAT distinguish between implicit and
explicit memory, and identify the main brain
structure associated with each.
33Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
- amnesia the loss of memory.
- Studied frequently in the study of memory.
- Patients with amnesia can be classically
conditioned, but they do all these things with no
awareness of having learned them.
34Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
- implicit memory retention independent of
conscious recollection. - Also called procedural memory.
- The unconscious capacity for learning.
35Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
- explicit memory memory of facts and experiences
that one can consciously know and declare. - Also called declarative memory.
36The Hippocampus
- hippocampus a neural center that is located in
the limbic system and helps process explicit
memories for storage.
37The Hippocampus
38The Hippocampus
- Using brain scans while people are forming a
memory, activity is seen in the hippocampus and
certain areas of the frontal lobe. - The hippocampus is also activated during recall
of words (explicit memory).
39The Hippocampus
- Damage to the hippocampus messes up certain types
of memory. - You have two hippocampuses, just above each ear
and about an inch and a half in.
40DO NOW (3.17.10)
- What role does the synapse play in memory?
- What role does the hippocampus play?
41The Hippocampus
- Damage to the left hippocampus cause trouble
remembering verbal information, but no issues
recalling visual designs and locations. - Damage to the right hippocampus causes the
reverse problem.
42The Hippocampus
- Subregions of the hippocampus activate for
different tasks, like learning to associate names
with faces, or using spatial mnemonics. - The rear area for spatial memory gets bigger in
London cab drivers who has been navigating the
city streets.
43The Hippocampus
- Monkeys and people who lose their hippocampus
lost most of their recall for things learned
during the preceding month, but older memories
remain intact.
44The Hippocampus
- It seems to act as a loading dock for
registering and temporarily storing elements of a
remembered episode, like smell, feel, sound, and
location. - Then older memories are shifted into long-term
storage.
45The Hippocampus
- It is active during slow-wave sleep, as memories
are processed and filed for later retrieval. - The greater the hippocampuss activity during
sleep after a training exercise, the better the
next days memory.
46The Hippocampus
- Brain scans show that different memories activate
different parts of the frontal and temporal
lobes. - e.g. recalling telephone numbers and holding them
in working memory activates a region in the left
frontal cortex.
47The Hippocampus
- Brain scans show that different memories activate
different parts of the frontal and temporal
lobes. - e.g. recalling a party scene would more likely
active a region of the right hemisphere.
48The Hippocampus
- This has helped prove that our memories are
stored in more than one place. - Amnesia patients may remember fragments of
memories, but have lost the ability to assemble
them into a whole.
49The Cerebellum
- The cerebellum extends out from the rear of the
brainstem. - It plays a key role in forming and storing the
implicit memories created by classical
conditioning.
50The Cerebellum
51The Cerebellum
- Humans with a damaged cerebellum are incapable of
developing certain conditioned reflexes, such as
associating a tone with a puff of air.
52The Cerebellum
- The explicit-implicit memory system helps explain
infantile amnesia. - Our conscious minds are blank because we index so
much of our explicit memory by words that
non-speaking children have not learned, but also
because the hippocampus is one of the last brain
structures to mature.
53RETRIEVAL GETTING INFORMATION OUT
- Recall, Recognition, and Relearning
- Objective SWBAT contrast the recall,
recognition, and relearning measures of memory.
54Recall, Recognition, and Relearning
- recall a measure of memory in which the person
must retrieve information learned earlier. - e.g. a fill-in-the-blank test.
55Recall, Recognition, and Relearning
- recognition a measure of memory in which the
person need only identify items previously
learned. - e.g. multiple-choice test.
56Recall, Recognition, and Relearning
- relearning a memory measure that assesses the
amount of time saved when learning material for a
second time.
57Retrieval Cues
- Objective SWBAT explain how retrieval cues can
help us access stored memories, and describe the
process of priming.
58Retrieval Cues
- retrieval cues anchor points you can use to
access the target information when you want to
retrieve it later. - the other bits of information that are associated
to specific memories, like tags, hints, or
identifying marks on the target information.
59Retrieval Cues
- E.g. your surroundings, mood, seating position,
etc.
60Retrieval Cues
- The more retrieval cues you have, the better your
chance of finding a route to the suspended
memory. - Mnemonic devices provide handy retrieval cues.
61Retrieval Cues
- Priming the activation, often unconsciously, of
particular associations in memory. - It is often memoryless memory memory without
explicit remembering (it happens unconsciously).
62Context Effects
- Objective SWBAT cite some ways that context can
affect retrieval.
63Context Effects
- Putting yourself back in the context where you
experienced something can prime your memory for
retrieval. - Research has even shown that taking an exam in
the same room where you are taught may help
increase your memory a little. - E.g. retracing your steps to find a lost item
64Context Effects
- Déjà vu that eerie sense that Ive experienced
this before. - Cues from the current situation may
subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
experience.
65DO NOW
- Prepare your reading notes to be checked.
- SILENTLY read the quarter sheet on your desk.
- DO NOT share it or talk about it with your
neighbor (Ms. Desgrosellier is looking for YOUR
unbiased opinion).
66How fast?
67Context Effects
- Déjà vu
- If we have been in a similar situation, the
current situation may be loaded with cues that
unconsciously retrieve the earlier experience. - Or a situation might seem familiar when
moderately similar to several events.
68Moods and Memories
- Objective SWBAT describe the effects of internal
states on retrieval.
69Moods and Memories
- Events in the past may have caused a specific
emotion that later can prime us to recall its
associated events.
70Moods and Memories
- state-dependent memory what we learn in one
state (e.g. joyful or sad) is sometimes more
easily recalled when we are again in that state. - What people learn when depressed or drunk,
however, they dont recall well in any state.
71Moods and Memories
- state-dependent memory what we learn in one
state (e.g. joyful or sad) is sometimes more
easily recalled when we are again in that state. - Depression disrupts encoding and alcohol disrupts
storage.
72Moods and Memories
- mood-congruent memory the tendency to recall
experiences that are consistent with ones
current good or bad mood.
73Moods and Memories
- mood-congruent memory
- Some research has shown that people who are
currently depressed see their parents rejecting,
punitive, and guilt promoting, while formally
depressed people see their parents much the same
as people who have never been depressed.
74Moods and Memories
- mood-congruent memory
- Moods also influence how we interpret others
behavior and create mood bias.
75Moods and Memories
- Your moods effect on retrieval helps explain why
moods persist. - When your happy, you recall happy events and see
the world as a happy place, which prolongs the
good mood (and vice versa).
76FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
- Objective SWBAT explain why we should value our
ability to forget, and distinguish three general
ways our memory fails us.
77FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
- Being able to forget things allows us to clear
out unnecessary mental clutter in our memories.
78FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
- Memory researcher Daniel Schacter outlines seven
ways our memories fail us - Three sins of forgetting
- absent-mindedness inattention to details
produces encoding failure. - transience storage decay over time.
- blocking inaccessibility of stored information.
79FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
- Three sins of distortion
- misattribution confusing the source of
information. - suggestibility the lingering effects of
misinformation. - bias belief-colored recollections.
80FORGETTING, MEMORY CONSTRUCTION, AND MEMORY
IMPROVEMENT
- One sin of intrusion
- persistence unwanted memories.
81FORGETTING
- Encoding Failure
- Objective SWBAT discuss the role of encoding
failure in forgetting.
82Encoding Failure
- We cannot remember what we fail to encode because
the information never enters long-term memory.
83Encoding Failure
- Age can affect encoding efficiency brain areas
used for encoding are less responsive in older
adults. - This decline in encoding helps explain
age-related memory decline (in recall). - However, recognition in older adults stays about
the same.
84Encoding Failure
- Encoding failure also comes from our selective
attention to particular details.
85Storage Decay
- Objective SWBAT discuss the concept of storage
decay, and describe Ebbinghaus forgetting curve.
86Storage Decay
- Forgetting curve From Ebbinghauss research, it
indicates that much of what we learn we may
quickly forget. - This led to a psychological law the course of
forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off
with time. - One explanation for the forgetting curve is a
gradual fading of the physical memory trace.
87Storage Decay
88Retrieval Failure
- It is possible that memory failure occurs because
you cannot access your properly encoded and
stored memories. - You may just lack the information needed to look
it up and retrieve it. - Retrieval cues may help retrieval.
- These problems contribute to older adults memory
problems.
89Interference
- Objective SWBAT contrast proactive and
retroactive interference, and explain how they
can cause retrieval failure.
90Interference
- Learning some items may interfere with retrieving
others, especially when the items are similar. - Caused when old and new information compete with
each other.
91Interference
- proactive interference the disruptive effect of
prior learning on the recall of new information. - If you get a new phone number, your memory of the
old one may interfere.
92Interference
- retroactive interference the disruptive effect
of new learning on the recall of old information. - Learning new classmates names may interfere with
remembering old ones.
93Interference
- You can minimize retroactive interference by
reducing the number of interfering events (e.g.
going to sleep shortly after learning new
information). - Positive transfer when old information can
facilitate our learning of new information.
94DO NOW
- Get out your last set of notes on memory. We will
be wrapping up this section today. - Note any questions you would like to ask Ms. D
about your midterm. She will answer them today.
95Motivated Forgetting
- Objective SWBAT summarize Freuds concept of
repression, and state whether this view is
reflected in current memory research.
96Motivated Forgetting
- repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic
defense mechanism that banishes from
consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories. - Proposed by Sigmund Freud.
97Motivated Forgetting
- While many people, including therapists, believe
in repression, more and more memory researchers
think repression rarely, if ever occurs. - Research has shown that emotions and associated
stress hormones strengthen memories. - However, does this apply to horrible events?
98MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
- Misinformation and Imagination Effects
- Objective SWBAT explain how misinformation and
imagination can distort our memory of an event.
99MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
- misinformation effect incorporating misleading
information into ones memory of an event.
100MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
- Research by Elizabeth Loftus
- E.g. Shown a picture of a car accident, and then
asked how fast were the cars going when they hit
each other? vs. smashed into each other?
101MEMORY CONSTRUCTION
- Imagining nonexistent actions and events can
create false memories. - Imagined events later seem more familiar,
familiar things seem more real, and the more
vividly people can imagine things, the more
likely they are to inflate their imaginations
into memories.
102Source Amnesia
- Objective SWBAT describe source amnesias
contribution to false memories.
103Source Amnesia
- source amnesia attributing to the wrong source
an event we have experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined. - Also called source misattribution.
- This is a cause of many false memories.
104Source Amnesia
- source amnesia attributing to the wrong source
an event we have experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined. - Also called source misattribution.
- This is a cause of many false memories.
105Discerning True and False Memories
- Objective SWBAT list some differences and
similarities between true and false memories.
106Discerning True and False Memories
- True memories
- are like perceptions of the past.
- have more detail than false memories.
107Discerning True and False Memories
- False memories
- are more restricted to the gist of the supposed
event. - created by suggested misinformation and
misattributed sources may feel as real as true
memories and can be just as persistent.
108Discerning True and False Memories
- In eye-witness testimonies, the more confident
and consistent a witness, the more persuasive. - However, they are not necessarily more accurate.
109Discerning True and False Memories
- Hypnotically refreshed memories can easily
incorporate errors from the hypnotists leading
questions.
110Discerning True and False Memories
- Cognitive interview technique a new way for
police to interview eye-witnesses. - They first visualize the scene to active
retrieval cues. - Then the witness tells in detail and without
interruption every point recalled (no matter how
trivial).
111Discerning True and False Memories
- Cognitive interview technique a new way for
police to interview eye-witnesses. - Only then does the detective ask follow-up
questions. - This technique increases accurate recall by some
50.
112Childrens Eyewitness Recall Repressed or
Constructed Memories of Abuse
- Objective SWBAT give arguments supporting and
rejecting the position that very young childrens
reports of abuse are reliable. - Objective SWBAT discuss the controversy over
reports of repressed and recovered memories of
childhood sexual abuse.
113Childrens Eyewitness Recall Repressed or
Constructed Memories of Abuse
- With both of these topics, please refer to your
book. - Major takeaways There is no evidence that
concretely says that you should always believe or
disbelieve childrens testimony, or repressed or
constructed memories of abuse.
114Childrens Eyewitness Recall Repressed or
Constructed Memories of Abuse
- Children can be reliable and fallible.
- Abuse does happen!
- Psychologists still debate about the reliability
of childrens testimonies and repression.
115Improving Memory
- Objective SWBAT explain how an understanding of
memory can contribute to effective study
techniques.
116Improving Memory
- Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
- Overlearn!
- Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking
about the material.
117Improving Memory
- Make the material personally meaningful.
- To remember a list of unfamiliar items, use
mnemonic devices. - Refresh your memory by activating retrieval cues.
- Recall events while they are fresh, before you
encounter possible misinformation.
118Improving Memory
- Minimize interference study before sleeping do
not schedule back-to-back study sessions for
topics likely to cause interference. - Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and
to help determine what you do not yet know. - Without self-testing, you can become
overconfident!