Figure 8.1 Shifts in the home ranges of two female Apalone muticus in the Kansas River. Two time periods are represented: Closed circles represent early sightings during summer, and open circles represent sighting approximately 1

1
Figure 8.1 Shifts in the home ranges of two
female Apalone muticus in the Kansas River. Two
time periods are represented Closed circles
represent early sightings during summer, and open
circles represent sighting approximately 12
months later (time periods are not the same for
each turtle). The upper panel is a subadult that
shifted its home range 1363 m upstream. The lower
panel is an adult female that shifted its home
range 1534 m upstream. Because the turtles are
aquatic and live in rivers and streams, their
distribution is linear. Adapted from Plummer and
Shirer, 1975.
2
Figure 8.2 Seasonal variation in home range size
for male and female Sceloporus jarrovi. Breeding
occurs in fall, at which time male home ranges
increase in size. Adapted from Ruby, 1978.
3
Figure 8.3 As female density increases, home
range size decreases for most amphibians and
reptiles, as shown here for territorial and
nonterritorial female lizards. Adapted from
Stamps, 1983.
4
Figure 8.4 Home range size in Sceloporus merriami
varies between sexes, among years, and among
three different sites in the Chisos Mountains of
west Texas. Boquillas, the site with the most
extreme (hot and dry) environment, imposes
thermal constraints on lizard activity, resulting
in small home ranges.Adapted from Ruby and
Dunham, 1987.
5
Figure 8.5 Adult Sonoran mud turtles move more
than juveniles, and for adult males and
juveniles, distance moved does not increase much
with turtle size. However, in adult females,
small and very large females move less than
females of moderate size. Note that the y-axis is
natural-log transformed.Adapted from Hall and
Seidl, 2007.
6
Figure 8.6 Locations and movements of water
pythons (Liasis fuscus) in the Northern Territory
of Australia. Solid circles indicate positions of
snakes during dry season when the floodplain is
dry and the backswamp contains deep crevices
open circles indicate positions of snakes during
wet season when the floodplain is wet and the
backswamp crevices are closed. Snakes move to
high ground in wet season because rats become
rare in low areas. Snakes move to the backswamp
and dam during dry season because rats there are
larger. Arrows show movement patterns for two
radio-tracked individuals (one male and one
female) showing that individuals move long
distances. Adapted from Madsen and Shine, 1996.
7
Figure 8.7 Phylogeny for lizards showing the
evolutionary distribution of home range defense.
The ancestor of all lizards presumably defended
the entire home range with an overall reduction
in area defended as lizards diversified, and this
behavior is carried through in clades indicated
by black. Site defense (clades in red) evolved in
the ancestor to Autarchoglossans. A lack of home
range or site defense evolved independently
twice, in the ancestor to the Lacertiformes and
in the ancestor to Anguimorpha. Taxonomy has been
revised for consistency, but relationships to
behavioral traits remain unchanged.Adapted from
Martins, 1994.
8
Figure 8.8 Amphibians and reptiles usually remain
in one place while brooding or attending eggs.
The ceratobatrachid frog Platymantis (undescribed
species) broods its eggs on leaves, whereas the
microhylid frog Oreophryne (undescribed species)
broods its eggs inside of hollows in
branches.Photographs by Stephen J. Richards.
9
Figure 8.9 A basking aggregation of marine
iguanas, Amblyrhynchus cristatus. (K. Miyata)
10
Figure 8.10 Some tropical colubrid snakes are
diurnal, such as the tropical whipsnake,
Chironius flavolineatus (left), but most are
nocturnal, such as the burrowing snake
Apostolepis bimaculata. (L. J. Vitt)
11
Figure 8.11 Long-range movements based on
straight-line distances of Trachemys scripta
between aquatic habitats in South Carolina.
Travel between Ellenton Bay and Lost Lake were
primarily over land. Exchanges in Par Pond could
have been by a shorter overland route or a longer
route through water.Adapted from Gibbons et al.,
1990.
12
Figure 8.12 The snake Enhydris plumbea in
Malaysia (Borneo) moves very little. The method
of collecting movement data influences the
results and might lead to misleading conclusions
in species that move considerable distances.
Adapted from Voris and Karns, 1996.
13
Figure 8.13 Green sea turtles travel from their
nesting beaches throughout the Caribbean Sea to
reach beaches as far north as Cuba. Adapted from
Bowen and Avise, 1996.
14
Figure 8.14 The number of breeding females and
metamorphosing larvae of three salamander species
and one frog species varies impressively from
year to year in the small Carolina bay, Rainbow
Bay, in South Carolina. Migration patterns of
amphibians using the same breeding sites are not
synchronous.Adapted from Pechmann et al., 1991.
15
Figure 8.15 Model showing the relationships
between costs and benefits of dispersal. The
curved surface represents points where costs and
benefits of dispersal are at equilibrium.
Dispersal behavior will be selected above the
plane, whereas philopatry will be selected below
the plane. The three-dimensional volume
represents a species in which some individuals
(e.g., juveniles) disperse and others (e.g.,
adults) remain where they are. Adapted from
Clobert et al., 1994.
16
Figure 8.16 Some amphibians carry their tadpoles
or young around and aid in their dispersal. The
Australian microhylid, Sphenophryne cornuta,
drops off its young in different places.
Photograph by Stephen J. Richards.
17
Figure 8.17 Relationships among cues, sensory
systems, and the mechanistic basis of orientation
and navigation for anurans. These relationships
may be similar for most amphibians and reptiles.
For terrestrial species, odors might be
associated with den sites or daily retreats.
Adapted from Sinch, 1990.
18
Figure 8.18 Movement activity of three individual
Coluber viridiflavus. Short arrows indicate
typical 1-day or complex movements, and the
heavier, long arrows indicate large loops. The
tip of each arrow indicates the most distant
point reached by the snake during each excursion.
Adapted from Ciofi and Chelazzi, 1994.
19
Figure 8.19 Y-axis orientation is a type of
celestial orientation. The animal establishes a
homing axis (y) perpendicular to an identifiable
physical attribute of its home (e.g., shoreline,
the x axis). Normal escape response is into the
pond for the frog being approached by terrestrial
predators or to shallow water for tadpoles being
approached by aquatic predators return follows
the compass direction of the y-axis. Adapted from
Adler, 1970.
20
Figure 8.20 Diagrammatic summary of experiments
on orientation toward shore and toward the home
pond for eastern red-spotted newts. In both sets
of experiments, controls are those with a full
spectrum of light available. In the left panel,
newts oriented toward shore in both of the
controls and when under short wavelength light.
Under long wavelength light, newts oriented
approximately 90 counterclockwise from the
shore, and their pattern of orientation was
significantly different from both their control
and the newts under short wavelength light,
demonstrating the light dependency of shoreline
magnetic orientation. In the right panel, newts
oriented toward their home ponds in both controls
and under short wavelength light but oriented
randomly under long wavelength light,
demonstrating the light dependency of home pond
magnetic orientation. Adapted from Phillips and
Borland, 1994.
21
Figure 8.21 Different orientation cues believed
to guide hatchling Loggerhead sea turtles from
their nests on beaches in Florida to the open
ocean. Lines indicate direction of waves. Adapted
from Lohmann et al., 1997, and Russel et al.,
2005.
22
Figure 8.22 Life cycle of the green sea turtle
showing the course of movements throughout life
and possible cues used for orientation during
each life history stage. Adapted from Miller,
1996.