UNIX

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UNIX AN INTRODUCTION
Compiled by S. Agarwal, Lecturer Systems
Incharge St. Xaviers Computer Centre, St.
Xaviers College Kolkata.
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What is UNIX UNIX is an operating system. An
operating system is the program that controls all
the other parts of a computer system, both the
hardware and the software. It allocates the
computer's resources and schedules tasks. It
allows you to make use of the facilities provided
by the system. Every computer requires an
operating system.
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What is LINUX Linux is a free Unix-type
operating system originally created by Linus
Torvalds with the assistance of developers around
the world. Developed under the GNU General Public
License , the source code for Linux is freely
available to everyone. The commands functions
of linux are similar to unix.
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• Features of UNIX
• UNIX is a multi-user, multi-tasking operating
  system. Multiple users may have multiple tasks
  running simultaneously. This is very different
  than PC operating systems.
• UNIX is a machine independent operating system.
  Not specific to just one type of computer
  hardware. Designed from the beginning to be
  independent of the computer hardware.
• UNIX is a software development environment. Was
  born in and designed to function within this type
  of environment.

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The UNIX operating system is made up of three
parts the kernel, the shell and the programs.
The kernel The kernel of UNIX is the hub of
the operating system it allocates time and
memory to programs and handles the filestore and
communications in response to system calls.
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The shell The shell acts as an interface between
the user and the kernel. When a user logs in, the
login program checks the username and password,
and then starts another program called the shell.
The shell is a command line interpreter (CLI). It
interprets the commands the user types in and
arranges for them to be carried out. The commands
are themselves programs when they terminate, the
shell gives the user another prompt ( on our
systems).
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The shell is not only an interpreter for your
interactive commands, which you type at the
prompt. It is also a powerful programming
language, which allows you to write shell
scripts, to batch'' several shell commands
together in a file. MS-DOS users will recognize
the similarity to batch files''. Use of shell
scripts is a very powerful tool, which will allow
you to automate and expand your usage of UNIX.
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Bourne shell (sh) This is the original Unix shell
written by Steve Bourne of Bell Labs. It is
available on all UNIX systems. This shell does
not have the interactive facilites provided by
modern shells such as the C shell and Korn shell.
The Bourne shell does provide an easy to use
language with which you can write shell scripts.
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There are several types of shells in the UNIX
world. The two major types are the Bourne
shell'' and the C shell''. The Bourne shell
uses a command syntax like the original shell on
early UNIX systems. The name of the Bourne shell
on most UNIX systems is /bin/sh (where sh stands
for shell''). The C shell uses a different
syntax, somewhat like the programming language C,
and on most UNIX systems is named /bin/csh.
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Under Linux, there are several variations of
these shells available. The two most commonly
used are the Bourne Again Shell, or Bash''
(/bin/bash), and Tcsh (/bin/tcsh). Bash is a
form of the Bourne shell with many of the
advanced features found in the C shell. Because
Bash supports a superset of the Bourne shell
syntax, any shell scripts written in the standard
Bourne shell should work with Bash. For those
who prefer to use the C shell syntax, Linux
supports Tcsh, which is an expanded version of
the original C shell.
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Files and processes Everything in UNIX is either
a file or a process. A process is an executing
program identified by a unique PID (process
identifier). A file is a collection of data.
They are created by users using text editors,
running compilers etc. Examples of files   a
document (report, essay etc.)   the text of a
program written in some high-level programming
language instructions comprehensible directly
to the machine and incomprehensible to a casual
user, for example, a collection of binary digits
(an executable or binary file)   a directory,
containing information about its contents, which
may be a mixture of other directories
(subdirectories) and ordinary files.
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Accessing a UNIX System There are many ways that
you can access a UNIX system. The main mode of
access to a UNIX machine is through a terminal,
which usually includes a keyboard, and a video
monitor. For each terminal connected to the UNIX
system, the kernel runs a process called a tty
that accepts input from the terminal, and sends
output to the terminal. Tty processes are general
programs, and must be told the capabilities of
the terminal in order to correctly read from, and
write to, the terminal. If the tty process
receives incorrect information about the terminal
type, unexpected results can occur.
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Console Every UNIX system has a main console
that is connected directly to the machine. The
console is a special type of terminal that is
recognized when the system is started. Some UNIX
system operations must be performed at the
console. Typically, the console is only
accessible by the system operators, and
administrators.
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Logging In and Logging Out To ensure security
and organization on a system with many users,
UNIX machines employ a system of user accounts.
The user accounting features of UNIX provide a
basis for analysis and control of system
resources, preventing any user from taking up
more than his or her share, and preventing
unauthorized people from accessing the system.
Every user of a UNIX system must get permission
by some access control mechanism.
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Logging in Logging in to a UNIX system requires
two pieces of information A username, and a
password. When you sit down for a UNIX session,
you are given a login prompt that looks like
this login Type your username at the login
prompt, and press the return key. The system will
then ask you for your password. When you type
your password, the screen will not display what
you type.
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Your username Your username is assigned by the
person who creates your account. Your username
must be unique on the system where your account
exists since it is the means by which you are
identified on the system. Your password When
your account is created, a password is assigned.
The first thing you should do is change your
password, using the passwd utility. To change
your password, type the command passwd

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Logging Out When you're ready to quit, type the
command exit Before you leave your terminal,
make sure that you see the login prompt,
indicating that you have successfully logged out.
If you have left any unresolved processes, the
UNIX system will require you to resolve them
before it will let you log out. Some shells will
recognize other commands to log you out, like
"logout" or even "bye".
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UNIX FILESYSTEM The UNIX filesystem is
heirarchical (resembling a tree structure). The
tree is anchored at a place called the root,
designated by a slash "/". Every item in the UNIX
filesystem tree is either a file, or a directory.
A directory is like a file folder. A directory
can contain files, and other directories. A
directory contained within another is called the
child of the other. A directory in the filesystem
tree may have many children, but it can only have
one parent. A file can hold information, but
cannot contain other files, or directories.
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To decribe a specific location in the filesystem
heirarchy, you must specify a "path." The path to
a location can be defined as an absolute path
from the root anchor point, or as a relative
path, starting from the current location. When
specifying a path, you simply trace a route
through the filesystem tree, listing the sequence
of directories you pass through as you go from
one point to another. Each directory listed in
the sequence is separated by a slash. UNIX
provides the shorthand notation of "." to refer
to the current location, and ".." to refer to the
parent directory.
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The absolute path to the directory named "jon"
would be /users/admin/jon The relative path
from the directory named "student" to the
directory named "jon" in the tree diagram would
be ../admin/jon
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UNIX COMMANDS
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ls (list) When you first login, your current
working directory is your home directory. Your
home directory has the same name as your
user-name, and it is where your personal files
and subdirectories are saved. To find out what
is in your home directory, type ls (short for
list) The ls command lists the contents of your
current working directory.
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There may be no files visible in your home
directory, in which case, the UNIX prompt will be
returned. Alternatively, there may already be
some files inserted by the System Administrator
when your account was created. ls does not, in
fact, cause all the files in your home directory
to be listed, but only those ones whose name does
not begin with a dot (.) Files beginning with a
dot (.) are known as hidden files and usually
contain important program configuration
information. They are hidden because you should
not change them unless you are very familiar with
UNIX!!!
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To list all files in your home directory
including those whose names begin with a dot,
type ls a ls can take options -a is an
example of an option. The options change the
behaviour of the command. There are online manual
pages that tell you which options a particular
command can take, and how each option modifies
the behaviour of the command.
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The characters and ? The character is called
a wildcard, and will match against none or more
character(s) in a file (or directory) name. For
example, in your unixstuff directory, type ls
list This will list all files in the current
directory starting with list.... ls
list This will list all files in the current
directory ending with ....list The character ?
will match exactly one character.So ls ?ouse
will match files like house and mouse, but not
grouse. ls ?list
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mkdir (make directory) To make a subdirectory
called unixstuff in your current working
directory type mkdir unixstuff To see the
directory you have just created, type ls
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cd (change directory) The command cd directory
means change the current working directory to
'directory'. The current working directory may be
thought of as the directory you are in, i.e. your
current position in the file-system tree. To
change to the directory you have just made, type
cd unixstuff Type ls to see the contents
(which should be empty)
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In every directory there are two special
directories called (.) and (..) In UNIX, (.)
means the current directory, so typing cd .
means stay where you are (the unixstuff
directory). This may not seem very useful at
first, but using (.) as the name of the current
directory will save a lot of typing, as we shall
see later in the tutorial.   (..) means the
parent of the current directory, so typing cd
.. will take you one directory up the hierarchy
(back to your home directory). Note typing cd
with no argument always returns you to your home
directory. This is very useful if you are lost in
the file system.
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pwd (print working directory) Pathnames enable
you to work out where you are in relation to the
whole file-system. For example, to find out the
absolute pathname of your home-directory, type cd
to get back to your home-directory and then type
pwd /user/eebeng99/ee91ab
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(your home directory) Home directories can
also be referred to by the tilde character. It
can be used to specify paths starting at your
home directory. ls /unixstuff will list the
contents of your unixstuff directory, no matter
where you currently are in the file system. What
do you think
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SUMMARY
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Copy files cp (copy) cp file1 file2 is the
command which makes a copy of file1 in the
current working directory and calls it file2
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Move files mv (move) mv file1 file2 moves (or
renames) file1 to file2. To move a file from one
place to another, use the mv command. This has
the effect of moving rather than copying the
file, so you end up with only one file rather
than two. It can also be used to rename a file,
by moving the file to the same directory, but
giving it a different name.
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rm (remove), rmdir (remove directory) To delete
(remove) a file, use the rm command. Inside
unixstuff directory, type cp science.txt
tempfile.txt ls (to check if it has created the
file) rm tempfile.txt ls (to check if it has
deleted the file) You can use the rmdir command
to remove a directory (make sure it is empty
first).
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clear (clear screen) You may clear the terminal
window of the previous commands so the output of
the following commands can be clearly understood.
At the prompt, type clear This will clear
all text and leave you with the prompt at the
top of the window.
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Displaying the contents of a file on the screen
cat (concatenate) The command cat can be used
to display the contents of a file on the screen.
Type cat science.txt If the file is longer
than than the size of the window, it scrolls past
making it unreadable.  less The command less
writes the contents of a file onto the screen a
page at a time. Type less science.txt Press
the space-bar to see another page, type q to
quit reading. As you can see, less is used in
preference to cat for long files.

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head The head command writes the first ten lines
of a file to the screen. First clear the screen
then type head science.txt tail The tail
command writes the last ten lines of a file to
the screen. Clear the screen and type tail
science.txt  
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Simple searching using less Using less, you can
search though a text file for a keyword
(pattern). For example, to search through
science.txt for the word 'science', type less
science.txt then, still in less (i.e. don't
press q to quit), type a forward slash /
followed by the word to search /science less
finds and highlights the keyword. Type n to
search for the next occurrence of the word.  
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grep grep is one of many standard UNIX
utilities. It searches files for specified words
or patterns. First clear the screen, then type
grep science science.txt grep prints out each
line containg the word science. grep Science
science.txt The grep command is case sensitive
it distinguishes between Science and science.
To ignore upper/lower case distinctions, use
the -i option grep -i science science.txt
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To search for a phrase or pattern, you must
enclose it in single quotes (the apostrophe
symbol). For example to search for spinning top,
type grep -i 'spinning top' science.txt Some
of the other options of grep are -v display
those lines that do NOT match -n precede each
maching line with the line number -c print only
the total count of matched lines Try some of
them and see the different results. Don't forget,
you can use more than one option at a time, for
example, the number of lines without the words
science or Science is grep -ivc science
science.txt
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wc (word count) A handy little utility is the wc
command, short for word count. To do a word count
on science.txt, type wc -w science.txt To
find out how many lines the file has, type wc
-l science.txt
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SUMMARY
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REDIRECTION If you run the cat command without
specifing a file to read, it reads the standard
input (the keyboard), and on receiving the'end of
file' (D), copies it to the standard output (the
screen). In UNIX, we can redirect both the input
and the output of commands. type cat without
specifing a file to read cat Then type a few
words on the keyboard and press the Return key.
Finally hold the Ctrl key down and press d
(written as D for short) to end the input. In
UNIX, we can redirect both the input and the
output of commands.
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Redirecting the output We use the gt symbol to
redirect the output of a command. For example, to
create a file called list1 containing a list of
fruit, type   cat gt list1 Then type in the
names of some fruit. Press Return after each
one. pearbananaappleD (Control D to
stop) The cat command reads the standard input
(the keyboard) and the gt redirects the output,
which normally goes to the screen, into a file
called list1 To read the contents of the file,
type cat list1
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The form gtgt appends standard output to a file. So
to add more items to the file list1, type cat
gtgt list1 Then type in the names of more fruit
peachgrapeorangeD (Control D to stop) To
read the contents of the file, type cat list1
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To join (concatenate) list1 and list2 into a new
file called biglist. Type cat list1 list2 gt
biglist What this is doing is reading the
contents of list1 and list2 in turn, then
outputing the text to the file biglist To read
the contents of the new file, type cat biglist
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The command sort alphabetically or numerically
sorts a list. Type sort Then type in the
names of some vegetables. Press Return after
each one. carrotbeetrootartichokeD (control
d to stop) The output will be artichokebeetroot
carrot
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Redirecting the input Using lt you can redirect
the input to come from a file rather than the
keyboard. For example, to sort the list of fruit,
type sort lt biglist and the sorted list will
be output to the screen. To output the sorted
list to a file, type, sort lt biglist gt slist
Use cat to read the contents of the file slist
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Pipes To see who is on the system with you,
type who One method to get a sorted list of
names is to type, who gt names.txt sort lt
names.txt This is a bit slow and you have to
remember to remove the temporary file called
names when you have finished. What you really
want to do is connect the output of the who
command directly to the input of the sort
command. This is exactly what pipes do. The
symbol for a pipe is the vertical bar For
example, typing who sort will give the same
result as above, but quicker and cleaner. To
find out how many users are logged on, type
who wc -l
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SUMMARY
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On-line Manuals There are on-line manuals which
gives information about most commands. The manual
pages tell you which options a particular command
can take, and how each option modifies the
behaviour of the command. Type man command to
read the manual page for a particular command.
For example, to find out more about the wc (word
count) command, type man wc Alternatively
whatis wc gives a one-line description of the
command, but omits any information about options
etc.
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Apropos When you are not sure of the exact name
of a command, apropos keyword will give you
the commands with keyword in their manual page
header. For example, try typing apropos copy
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File and directory permissions UNIX supports
access control. Every file and directory has
associated with it ownership, and access
permissions. Furthermore, one is able to specify
those to whom the permissions apply. Permissions
are defined as read, write, and execute. The
read, write, and execute permissions are referred
to as r, w, and x, respectively. Those to whom
the permissions apply are the user who owns the
file, those who are in the same group as the
owner, and all others. The user, group, and other
permissions are referred to as u, g, and o,
respectively. (groups UNIX allows users to be
placed in groups, so that the control of access
is made simpler for administrators. )
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The meaning of file and directory permissions
Read permission For a file, having read
permission allows you to view the contents of the
file. For a directory, having read permission
allows you to list the directory's contents.
Write permission For a file, write permission
allows you to modify the contents of the file.
For a directory, write permission allows you to
alter the contents of the directory, i.e., to add
or delete files. Execute permission For a file,
execute permission allows you to run the file, if
it is an executable program, or script. Note that
file execute permission is irrelevant for
nonexecutable files. For a directory, execute
permission allows you to cd to the directory, and
make it your current working directory.
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Viewing permissions To see the permissions on a
file, use the ls command, with the -l option.
Execute the command ls -l /etc/passwd to view
the information on the system password database.
The output should look similar to this
-rw-r--r-- 1 root sys 41002 Apr 17 1205
/etc/passwd The first 10 characters describe
the access permissions. The first dash indicates
the type of file (d for directory, s for special
file, - for a regular file). The next three
characters ("rw-") describe the permissions of
the owner of the file read and write, but no
execute. The next three characters ("r--")
describe the permissions for those in the same
group as the owner read, no write, no execute.
The next three characters describe the
permissions for all others read, no write, no
execute.
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Setting permissions UNIX allows you to set the
permissions on files that you own. The command to
change the file permission mode is chmod. Chmod
requires you to specify the new permissions you
want, and specify the file or directory you want
the changes applied to. To set file
permissions, you may use to the "rwx" notation to
specify the type of permissions, and the "ugo"
notation to specify those the permissions apply
to. To define the kind of change you want to
make to the permissions, use the plus sign () to
add a permission, the minus sign (-) to remove a
permission, and the equal sign () to set a
permission directly.
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The command chmod grw- /.shrc changes the file
permissions on the file .shrc, in your home
directory. Specifically, you are specifying group
read access and write access, with no execute
access. To change the permissions on the .shrc
file in your home directory so that group and
others have read permission only. type the
command chmod gor-- /.shrc